GIFT  OF 


MR,  J.  S.  HARRIS 
MR.  SAMUEL  DICKSON 
MR.  J.  6.  R6SEN6ARTEN 
MISS  FANNY  ROSENGARTEN 


lEx  ICtbrtH 


SEYMOUR  DURST 


When  you  leave,  please  leave  this  hook 

Because  it  has  heen  said 
"Ever'thinQ  comes  t'  him  who  waits 

Except  a  loaned  hook." 


Avery  Architectural  and  Fine  Arts  Library 
Gift  of  Seymour  B.  Durst  Old  York  Library 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2014 


http://archive.org/details/standardoflivingOOchap_0 


RUSSELL  SAGE 
FOUNDATION 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 
AMONG  WORKINGMEN'S 
FAMILIES  IN  NEW  YORK  CITY 


BY 

ROBERT  COIT  CHAPIN,  Ph.D. 

HORACE  WHITE  PROFESSOR  OF  ECONOMICS  AND  FINANCE  IN  BELOIT 
COLLEGE,  WISCONSIN 


NEW  YORK 

CHARITIES  PUBLICATION 
COMMITTEE   .   .  MCMIX 


Copyright,  1909,  by 
The  Russell  Sage  Foundation 


Press  or 
Wm.  F.  Fell  Company 
Philadelphia 


Table  of  Contents 

PAGE 

List  of  Diagrams   v 

List  of  Tables   vi 

Introductory  Statement   xiii 

Workingmen's  Budgets  in  Statistical  Literature   i 

The  Standard  of  Living  Among  Workingmen's  Families  in 
New  York  City 

Part  I: 

The  Method  of  the  Investigation   23 

Part  II: 

Analysis  of  the  Returns  Received  . .  35 

I.  Material  Used  and  Method  of  Treatment   37 

II.  Sources  of  Income   54 

III.  Objects  of  Expenditure   68 

A.  Apportionment  (Averages  and  Percentages) 

Between  Different  Heads  of  Expenditure.  68 

B.  Discussion  of  Separate  Heads  of  Expendi- 

ture  75 

1.  Housing   75 

2.  Car-fare   1 1 1 

3.  Fuel  and  Light   115 

4.  Food   123 

5.  Clothing   162 

6.  Health   182 

7.  Insurance   191 

8.  Sundry  Minor  Items   198 

IV.  Relation  of  Income  to  Expenditure   229 

Conclusions   245 

iii 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Appendices  : 

I.  Report  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living. 
Seventh  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities 
and  Correction.  Rochester,  November   13,  1906. 


By  Frank  Tucker,  Chairman   253 

II.  Report  of  the  Special  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living. 
Eighth  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction.  Albany,  November  12-14,  1907.  By 
Lee    K.  Frankel,  Chairman  263 

III.  The  Schedule   283 

IV.  Report  from  Nine  Cities  and  Towns  Outside  of  Greater 

New  York   300 

V.  Report  on  the  Standard  of  Living  Among  Working- 
men's  Families  in  Buffalo,  New  York.  By  John  R. 
Howard,  Jr   307 

VI.  Report  on  Nutrition  Investigation.    By  Frank  P. 

Underhill,  Ph.D   319 

VII.  A  Workingman's  Budget, from  Le  Play's  "LesOuvriers 

Europeens."    Translated  by  Louise  Charvet   326 

VIII.  A  Partial  Bibliography  of  Works  on  the  Standard  of 

Living.    By  Robert  C.  Chapin,  Ph.  D  353 

Index   361 


iv 


List  of  Diagrams 

PAGE 

1.  Distribution  of  the  391  families  according  to  nationality.  .  38 

2.  Number  of  families  in  each  income-group   40 

3.  Distribution  of  the  391  families  according  to  the  occupa- 

tion of  the  head  of  the  family   41 

4.  Total  number  of  families,  and  number  supported  entirely 

by  the  father   54 

5.  Percentage  of  income  from  each  source  in  each  income- 

group   56 

6.  Total  average  expenditure  for  each  income-group,  and 

average  amounts  expended  for  various  purposes   68 

7.  Percentage  of  expenditure  for  each  item   69 

8.  Percentage  of  families  reporting  one  or  more  dark  rooms'. .  78 

9.  Number  of  over-crowded  families  in  each  of  the  prin- 

cipal income-groups   80 

10.  Number  of  over-crowded  families  in  each  of  the  nation- 

ality-groups  82 

1 1 .  Number  of  under-fed  families  in  each  of  the  principal 

income-groups   127 

12.  Number  of  under-fed  families  in  each  of  the  nationality- 

groups   128 

13.  Number  of  under-clad  families  in  each  of  the  principal 

income-groups   167 

14.  Number  of  under-clad  families  in  each  of  the  nationality- 

groups    1 68 

15.  Number  of  families  carrying  insurance  on  persons  in  each 

nationality-group   191 

16.  |Number  of  persons  carrying  insurance  on  property  in 

each  nationality-group   192 


v 


List  of  Tables 


number  Enumeration  of  Families  page 

1.  By  income  and  nationality  of  father   44 

2.  By  borough,  income,  and  nationality  of  father   45 

Occupations 

3.  By  total  family  income   46 

4.  By  earnings  of  father   47 

5.  By  nationality   48 

Occupations  in  Detail 

6.  By  total  family  income  49~52 

Number  of  Persons  per  Family 
6a.By  income  and  nationality   53 

Sources  of  Income 

7.  Averages. — By  income  and  nationality   61 

8.  Percentages. — By  income  and  nationality   62 

9.  Averages  and  percentages. — By  income   63 

10.  Percentages. — By  borough  and  income   63 

11.  Number  of  families  reporting  income  from  given  sources. — By  income 

and  nationality   64 

12.  Number  of  families  reporting  income  from  lodgers:    Manhattan. — By 

income  and  nationality   65 

13.  Number  of  families  reporting  wage-earners  other  than  father. — By  nation- 

ality and  income   66 

14.  Number  of  families  reporting  wage-earners  other  than  father. — By  income  .  67 

Expenditures  for  Given  Objects 

15.  Averages  and  percentages. — By  income   70 

15a. Averages  and  percentages. — By  income  and  nationality  71-72 

16.  Averages  and  percentages. — By  occupation  73-74 

Housing 

17.  Rent  per  annum:    All  boroughs.    Average  amount  and  per  cent,  of  total 

expenditure. — By  income  and  nationality   85 

18.  Rent  per  annum:    Manhattan.    Average  amount  and  per  cent,  of  total 

expenditure. — By  income  and  nationality   86 

19.  Rent  per  annum:    Bronx,  Brooklyn,  Queens.    Average  amount  and  per 

cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By  income  and  nationality   87 

vi 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


NUMBER  PAGE 

20.  Rent  per  month:    Manhattan.    Number  of  families  paying  given  amounts. 

— By  income  „   88 

21.  Rent  per  month:    Manhattan.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  paying 

given  amounts. — By  nationality   88 

22.  Rent  per  month:    Manhattan.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  paying 

given  amounts. — By  income   89 

23.  Rent  per  month:    Manhattan.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  all  families 

paying  given  amounts. — By  cumulative  grouping   89 

24.  Rent  per  month:    Brooklyn  and  Bronx.    Number  of  families  paying 

given  amounts. — By  income   90 

25.  Distribution  into  districts  of  243  Manhattan  families. — By  rent,  income 

and  nationality   90 

26.  Rent  per  month:    Manhattan.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  paying 

rent  of  given  amounts. — By  district   91 

27.  Number  of  rooms  per  family:    Manhattan.    Averages. — By  income  and 

nationality   91 

28.  Number  of  rooms  per  family. — By  income,  borough  and  nationality  92~93 

29.  Number  of  rooms  per  family. — By  borough  and  income   94 

30.  Number  of  rooms  per  family:    All  boroughs  combined.    By  income  and 

nationality   95 

31.  Number  of  rooms  per  family :    All  boroughs  combined. — By  income   96 

32.  Number  of  rooms  per  family.    Percentages. — By  income  and  borough   97 

33.  Number  of  rooms  per  family.    All  boroughs  combined.    Percentages. — 

By  income   97 

34.  Number  of  rooms,  dark  rooms,  bathrooms,  private  toilets,  per  family. 

Averages. — By  income  and  borough   98 

35.  Dark  rooms,  bathrooms,  etc.:    All  boroughs.    Number  of  families  report- 

ing.— By  income  and  nationality   99 

36.  Dark  rooms,  bathrooms,  etc.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  borough, 

income  and  nationality   100 

37.  Dark  rooms,  bathrooms,  etc.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  boroughs 

(combined  and  separate)  and  income   101 

38.  Dark  rooms,  bathrooms,  etc.    Number  of   families   reporting.  Per- 

centages.— By  boroughs  (combined  and  separate)  and  income   102 

39.  Over-crowded  families.    Number  of  families  reporting  less  than  four 

rooms  and  more  than  one  and  one-half  persons  per  room. — By  nation- 
ality and  income  103-104 

40.  Over-crowded  families.    Number  of  families  reporting  more  than  one  and 

one-half  persons  per  room.    Percentages. — By  nationality  and  income. .  105 

41.  Over-crowded  families.    Number  of  families  reporting  less  than  four  rooms 

and  over  one  and  one-half  persons  per  room. — By  income  and  boroughs 
(combined  and  separate)   106 

42.  Over-crowded  families.    Number  of  families  having  more  than  one  and 

one-half  persons  per  room. — By  nationality  and  income   106 

43.  Over-crowded  families. — By  source  of  income  and  nationality   107 

vii 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


NUMBER  PAGE 

44.  Over-crowded  families.    Number  and  per  cent,  reporting  surplus  and 

deficit. — By  income   108 

45 .  Over-crowded  families.  Number  reporting  surplus  and  deficit. — By  nation- " 

ality  and  income   108 

46.  Rent  in  relation  to  lodgers:    Manhattan. — By  income   109 

47.  Rent  in  relation  to  lodgers:    Manhattan.    Percentages. — By  income   109 

48.  Lodgers  in  relation  to  over-crowding.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families. — 

By  income   no 

49.  Increase  of  rent:  Manhattan. — By  districts   no 

50.  Increase  of  rent:  Manhattan. — By  monthly  rental   no 

Car-Fare 

51.  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn.    Number  of  families  reporting  given  amounts. 

— By  monthly  rental   113 

52.  Number  of  families  reporting  given  amounts. — By  borough   113 

53.  Manhattan.    Families  reporting  expenditures  for  car-fare. — By  district 

and  amount  of  rent   114 

Fuel  and  Light 

54.  Average  amount  and  per  cent,  expended. — By  nationality  and  income   118 

55.  Fuel  gathered  free.    Number  of  families  reporting  and  percentages. — By 

income  and  nationality   119 

55a.Fuel  gathered  free.    Summary  of  Table  55. — By  income   119 

56.  Use  of  gas  and  kerosene:    Manhattan. — By  nationality  and  income   120 

57.  Use  of  gas  and  kerosene:    Bronx,  Brooklyn  and  Queens  — By  nationality 

and  income   121 

58.  Use  of  gas  and  kerosene. — By  boroughs  (combined  and  separate)  and 

income   122 

Food 

59.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By 

nationality  and  income   137 

60.  Average  amount  and  per  cent,  of  expenditure  for  food  material  of  various 

kinds. — By  nationality  and  income  138-139 

61.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure  for  food 

material  of  various  kinds. — By  income   140 

62.  Average  number  of  units  per  family.— By  income  and  nationality   140 

63.  Under-fed  families.    Number  reporting  expenditure  of  22  cents  per  man 

per  day  and  under  for  food. — By  nationality  and  income   141 

64.  Food  expenditure  reduced  to  number  of  cents  per  man  per  day.  Averages. 

— By  income  and  nationality   141 

65.  Under-fed  families.    Sources  of  income. — By  income  and  nationality   142 

66.  Under-fed  families.    Number  reporting  surplus  and  deficit. — By  nation- 

ality and  income   143 

67.  Under-fed  families.    Number  reporting  surplus  and  deficit. — By  income..  144 

viii 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


NUMBER  PAGE 

68.  Meals  away  from  home.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  nationality, 

income,  borough,  sources  of  income  and  occupation   145 

69.  Meals  away  from  home.    Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of 

given  amounts. — By  source  of  income   146 

70.  Meals  away  from  home.    Number  of  families  and  their  expenditures. — By 

income,  in  cumulative  form   146 

71.  Alcoholic  drinks  at  home.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  ex- 

penditure.— By  nationality  and  specified  amounts   147 

72.  Alcoholic  drinks  at  home.    Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure 

of  given  amounts. — By  nationality  and  income   148 

73.  Alcoholic  drinks  at  home.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  ex- 

penditure of  given  amounts. — By  income   149 

74.  Alcoholic  drinks  away  from  home  and  at  home.    Average  annual  expendi- 

ture and  number  of  families  reporting. — By  income   149 

75.  Milk.    Number  of  families  reporting  given  prices. — By  nationality  and  in- 

come  150 

76.  Milk.    Number  of  families  reporting  given  prices. — By  income   151 

77.  Ice.    Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given  amounts  and 

average  amount  expended. — By  nationality  and  income   152 

78.  Ice.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given 

amounts  and  average  amount  expended. — By  income   153 

Clothing 

79.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By 

nationality  and  income   172 

80.  Number  of  families  reporting  gifts. — By  nationality  and  income   173 

81.  Averages  and  per  cent,  of  expenditure  for  each  member  of  the  family 

with  and  without  gifts. — By  income.   174 

82.  Averages  and  per  cent,  of  expenditure  for  each  member  of  the  family. 

Incomes  under  $600  and  over  $1100. — By  income   175 

83.  Averages  and  percent,  of  expenditure  for  each  member  of  the  family,  for 

families  without  gifts. — By  nationality   176 

84.  Under-clothed  families. — By  nationality  and  income   177 

85.  Under-clothed  families.     Sources  of  income. — By  income  and  nation- 

ality  177 

86.  Under-clothed  families.    Number  reporting  surplus  and  deficit. — By 

nationality  and  income   178 

87.  Under-clothed  families.    Number  and  per  cent,  reporting  surplus  and 

deficit. — By  income   179 

88.  Washing.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  given  amounts. — By 

nationality  and  income   179 

89.  Washing.    Average  annual  expenditure. — By  income  and  nationality   180 

90.  Washing.    Laundry.    Number  of  families  spending  given  amounts. — By 

nationality  and  income   181 

ix 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


number  Health  page 

91.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By 

nationality  and  income   186 

92.  Number  of  families    reporting   expenditure  of  given  amounts. — By 

income  and  nationality   187 

93.  Per  cent,  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given  amounts. — By  income.  188 

94.  Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure,  serious  sickness,  free  medical 

aid,  dentistry. — By  nationality  and  income  ; . . .  189 

95.  Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  no  expenditure,  serious  sick- 

ness, free  medical  aid,  dentistry. — By  income   190 

96.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By 

nationality  and  income   195 

97.  Number  of  families  carrying  insurance  on  persons  and  on  property. — 

By  nationality  and  income   196 

98.  Average  number  of  persons  insured. — By  nationality  and  income   196 

99.  Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  insured  and  average  number  of  per- 

sons insured. — By  income   197 

Sundry  Minor  Items 

100.  Sundry  minor  items  collectively.    Average  annual  expenditure  and  per 

cent,  of  total  expenditure. — By  nationality  and  income   199 

Furniture  and  Furnishings 

101.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  number  of  families  reporting. — By 

nationality  and  income   202 

102.  Number  of   families   reporting   expenditure  of   given  amounts. — By 

nationality  and  income   203 

103.  Standard,  and  number  of  families  reporting  given  amounts  expended. — 

By  income   204 

104.  Standard,  and  number  of  families  reporting. — By  nationality  and  income.  205 

Taxes,  Dues  and  Contributions 

105.  Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure  for  given  purposes. — By 

nationality  and  income   208 

106.  Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  expenditure  for  given  pur- 

poses.— By  income   209 

Recreation  and  Amusement 

107.  Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  and  average  annual  expendi- 

ture.— By  income   212 

108.  Number  of  families  reporting  various  kinds. — By  nationality  and  in- 

come  213 

Education  and  Reading 

109.  Average  annual  expenditure  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  use  of  news- 

papers, books,  public  library. — By  income   216 

no.  Average  annual  expenditure,  and  number  of  families  reporting  use  of 

newspapers,  books,  public  library. — By  nationality  and  income   217 

X 


LIST  OF  TABLES 


NUMBER  PAGE 

in.  Number  of  families  reporting  purchase  of  given  newspapers. — By  nation- 
ality  218 

Miscellaneous  Expenditures 

112.  Average  annual  expenditure  of  all  families. — By  income  and  nationality. .  224 

113.  Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given  amounts. 

By  income   224 

114.  Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given  amounts. — By  income.  225 

115.  Number  of  families  reporting  expenditure  of  given  amounts. — By  nation- 

ality  226 

116.  Number  of  families  spending  given  amounts. — By  nationality-groups 

and  income   226 

117.  Tobacco.    Average  expenditure  of  all  families. — By  income   227 

118.  Tobacco.  Average  expenditure  of  all  families. — By  nationality  and  income  228 

Relation  of  Income  to  Expenditure 

119.  Surplus  and  deficit.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  nationality 

and  income   235 

120.  Surplus  and  deficit.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  income  236 

12 1.  Surplus  and  deficit.    Number  of  families  reporting  income  from  earn- 

ings of  father  only. — By  nationality  and  income  .-.  237 

122.  Surplus  and  deficit.    Number  of  families  reporting  composite  income. — 

By  nationality  and  income  238 

123.  Surplus  and  deficit.    Number  and  per  cent,  of  families  reporting. — By 

sources  of  income  and  income-group   239 

124.  Number  of  families  below  standard  as  regards  both  food  and  clothing, 

both  food  and  shelter,  or  both  shelter  and  clothing. — By  nationality 
and  income   240 

125.  Families  under-fed,  under-clothed,  and  over-crowded.    Number  and 

percentages. — By  income   241 

126.  Families  under-fed,  under-clothed,  and  over-crowded.     Number  and 

percentages. — By  income  and  sources  of  income   242 

127.  Savings  and  insurance.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  nationality 

and  income   243 

128.  Borrowing  and  pawning.    Number  of  families  reporting. — By  nation- 

ality and  income   244 

Nine  Cities  and  Towns  of  New  York  State 

129.  Per  cent,  of  total  annual  expenditure  reported  for  the  several  principal 

items  of  the  budget   305 

130.  Average  amount  of  expenditure  for  the  several  principal  items  of  the 

budget   306 

One  Hundred  Buffalo  Families 

131.  Expenditures  for  principal  items  of  the  budget.    Averages  and  percen- 

tages.— By  nationality   318 

xi 


Introductory  Statement 

At  the  seventh  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction,  held  in  Rochester  in  November,  1906,  in  accordance 
with  a  resolution  introduced  by  Mr.  Frank  Tucker,  of  New  York, 
a  committee  was  appointed  to  report  to  the  Conference  the 
following  year  the  essentials  and  the  cost  of  a  normal  standard 
of  living  in  the  cities  and  towns  of  the  state.  This  action  was 
the  outcome  of  a  spirited  discussion  of  the  subject  by  a  committee 
appointed  the  previous  year. 

The  Committee  as  finally  constituted  consisted  of  the  following 
persons:  Lee  K.  Frankel,  Chairman,  New  York;  Rev.  Adolph 
Guttmann,  Syracuse;  Edward  T.  Devine,  New  York;  Cyrus  L. 
Sulzberger,  New  York;  Wm.  H.  Allen,  New  York;  Abram  J. 
Katz,  Rochester;  Rt.  Rev.  David  H.  Greer,  New  York;  Rev.  Wm. 
J.  White,  Brooklyn;  Homer  Folks,  New  York;  Wm.  Drescher, 
Rochester;  John  J.  Fitzgerald,  New  York;  Rt.  Rev.  Thos.  F. 
Hickey,  Rochester;  Walter  E.  Kruesi,  New  York;  Mrs.  Wm. 
Einstein,  New  York;  Wm.  Guggenheim,  New  York;  Frank  Tucker, 
New  York. 

The  Committee,  at  its  first  meeting,  January  21,  1907,  elected 
Robert  C.  Chapin  secretary,  and  appointed  a  committee  on  sched- 
ule, consisting  of  Messrs.  Frankel,  Tucker,  and  Chapin.  The 
schedule  was  prepared,  and  early  in  April  was  ready  for  dis- 
tribution among  volunteers.  Over  400  schedules  were  put  into 
the  hands  of  volunteers,  and  a  number  of  extremely  valuable 
schedules  were  returned  by  them,  but  it  became  evident  by  the 
first  of  June  that,  in  view  of  the  fulness  of  the  schedule  and  the 
pressure  of  many  duties  upon  these  willing  workers,  the  number 
to  be  expected  from  such  sources  would  be  small.  In  the  end 
only  57  family  reports  were  received  from  volunteers.  It  appeared 
necessary,  therefore,  if  any  considerable  number  of  family  reports 
were  to  be  obtained,  to  hire  visitors  who  should  give  their  whole 
time  to  securing  the  desired  information.  The  funds  at  the 
disposal  of  the  Committee,  however,  did  not  suffice  for  any  such 

xiii 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT 


expenditure.  At  this  juncture,  the  trustees  of  the  Russell  Sage 
Foundation  made  a  generous  appropriation  for  the  prosecution  of 
the  investigation,  which  enabled  the  Committee  to  employ  a 
number  of  visitors,  who  were  at  work  from  the  middle  of  June 
until  the  end  of  August.  At  the  same  time  an  effort  was  made  to 
enlist  the  co-operation  of  the  labor  unions,  and  some  very  inter- 
esting schedules  were  received  from  them. 

Altogether,  some  80  different  persons  were  employed,  and 
by  the  time  that  the  canvass  was  closed,  642  schedules  had  been 
secured  from  all  sources.  The  compilation  of  the  data  thus 
gathered  was  carried  as  far  as  was  practicable  before  the  meeting 
of  the  State  Conference  in  Albany,  November  12-14,  and  the  re- 
sults summarized  by  the  Chairman,  Dr.  Frankel,  were  presented 
in  a  preliminary  report  at  that  time.  This  report  is  reprinted 
as  Appendix  II,  page  263,  in  this  volume,  and  the  report  of  Mr. 
Frank  Tucker,  chairman  of  the  committee  of  the  previous  year, 
may  be  found  in  Appendix  I,  page  253. 

The  original  schedules  and  tables  were  then  re-studied  from 
the  beginning  by  the  secretary,  and  the  detailed  analysis  that 
follows  was  prepared.  The  completed  work  has  been  accepted 
by  the  Faculty  of  Political  Science  in  Columbia  University  in 
satisfaction  of  the  requirement  of  a  thesis  for  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  philosophy. 

The  account  of  Workingmen's  Budgets  in  Statistical  Literature, 
prepared  in  connection  with  the  drafting  of  the  schedule,  is,  at 
the  suggestion  of  those  whose  co-operation  has  made  possible 
the  publication  of  this  volume,  prefixed  to  the  report  of  the  New 
York  investigation.  It  is  hoped  that  this  sketch  of  the  method 
used  by  previous  investigators  may  prove  suggestive  to  those 
who  are  engaged  in  such  studies  to-day. 

To  the  account  of  the  investigation  in  New  York  City  is  ap- 
pended a  summary  of  the  returns  received  by  the  Committee 
from  nine  other  cities  and  towns  in  the  State,  gathered  in  the 
summer  of  1907.  In  1908  the  Committee,  with  Mr.  Frederic 
Almy  of  Buffalo  as  Chairman,  organized  an  investigation  in 
Buffalo,  covering  one  hundred  families,  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  John  R.  Howard,  Jr.  Mr.  Howard's  report  of  the  results 
of  this  inquiry,  which  is  also  included  in  the  present  volume 

xiv 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENT 


(Appendix  V,  p.  307),  affords  an  instructive  comparison  of  condi- 
tions in  Buffalo  and  in  New  York. 

The  secretary  desires  to  make  grateful  acknowledgment  of 
the  assistance  and  encouragement  which  he  has  received  from  the 
members  of  the  Committee,  from  his  instructors  in  Columbia 
University,  and  from  other  friends.  To  the  wise  generalship 
of  the  Chairman,  Dr.  Lee  K.  Frankel,  and  to  the  expert  skill  in 
schedule-making  of  Mr.  Frank  Tucker,  are  largely  due  whatever 
results  have  been  attained.  The  interest  of  Miss  Lilian  Brandt 
was  manifested  in  very  helpful  counsel  in  the  initial  stages  of 
the  investigation,  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  diagrams  that 
illustrate  its  conclusions.  The  patient  ingenuity  of  Dr.  Rasum 
Brodsky  has  been  devoted  to  the  elaboration  of  the  statistical 
details. 

At  every  point  the  undertaking  has  had  the  active  support  of 
Professor  Edward  T.  Devine,  and  the  secretary  desires  to  express 
his  appreciation,  both  of  the  importance  of  Professor  Devine's 
initiative  and  advice  in  all  that  has  been  done,  and  especially 
of  the  aid  and  support  that  has  been  so  freely  given  in  personal 
relations. 

Robert  Coit  Chapin. 

Beloit  College,  January,  1909. 


XV 


Workingmen's  Budgets  in  Statistical 
Literature 


Workingmen's  Budgets  in  Statistical 
Literature  * 

The  object  of  collecting,  comparing,  and  combining  working- 
men's  budgets  is  to  get  a  reliable  representation  of  the  standard  of 
living,  first,  absolutely,  for  a  given  time,  place  and  class  of  laborers; 
second,  relatively,  in  comparison  with  the  standard  of  different 
times,  places  and  classes  of  men. 

Three  general  methods  have  been  employed  to  accomplish  these 
objects  which,  following  the  historical  order  of  their  appearance, 
are: 

I.  Estimates,  for  a  family  in  a  given  status,  of  the  income,  and 
of  the  kind,  amount  and  cost  of  the  principal  items  of  expenditure. 

II.  Reports  of  the  actual  income  and  expenditure,  more  or  less 
fully  itemized,  of  a  single  family  taken  as  representing  the  class 
in  which  it  is  found.  These  reports  are  obtained  either  by  the 
independent  testimony  of  the  family,  by  personal  inquiry  made  by 
a  reporter,  or  by  inducing  the  members  of  the  family  to  make  out 
and  keep  in  an  account-book  a  record  of  the  daily  expenditures. 

III.  The  combination  of  reports  of  individual  families  obtained 
by  either  of  the  preceding  methods.  The  use  of  the  average  has 
been  the  expedient  most  frequently  employed  in  effecting  the 
combinations  and  comparisons. 

During  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  first  method 
only  was  employed;  in  the  nineteenth  century,  the  second  method 
was  developed  by  Le  Play  and  the  third  by  Engel.  When  a  single 
family  or  a  small  number  of  families  are  studied  in  great  detail  the 
methods  may  be  described  as  intensive;  when  a  large  number  of 
family  reports  are  combined,  with  little  attention  to  detail,  the 
method  is  extensive. 

I.  Estimates. — The  earliest  recorded  instance,  perhaps,  of 
an  estimate  of  the  laborer's  cost  of  living  is  to  be  found  in  the 
writings  of  Sir  William  Petty  (circa  1672).    He  undertakes  such  an 

*  In  Appendix  VIII  (page  353)  will  be  found  a  partial  bibliography,  containing 
the  full  titles  of  the  books  mentioned  in  this  essay,  and  other  works  on  the  general 
subject  of  workingmen's  budgets  and  the  standard  of  living. 

3 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


estimate  both  for  England  and  for  Ireland.  For  Ireland  he  comes 
to  the  problem  in  accounting  for  the  smallness  of  Ireland's  foreign 
trade.  ("Anatomy  of  Ireland,"  1672,  Ch.  XI.)  This  trade  is 
small,  he  says,  because  the  standard  of  living  of  the  mass  of  the 
people  is  so  low.  They  live  in  "such  cottages  as  themselves  can 
make  in  three  or  four  days,"  and  provide  their  own  food  and  cloth- 
ing. He  estimates  the  money  value  of  the  victuals  of  a  man,  wife 
and  three  children  at  3s.  6d.  a  week,  or  Id.  per  diem  per  capita,  and 
"two-sevenths  of  the  expense  of  the  people  for  food  is  for  tobacco" 
(i.  e.,  two-sevenths  of  the  cash  outlay  for  food).  He  estimates  the 
clothing  of  a  man  at  30  shillings  a  year,  of  children  under  16  at  15 
shillings  on  the  average.  The  house  is  "not  worth  5  shillings  the 
building. "  "  Fuel  costs  nothing  but  fetching. "  The  whole  annual 
expense  of  a  family  of  six  averages  52  shillings  per  year. 

As  to  earnings,  he  calculates  that  the  annual  value  of  all  the 
land  of  Ireland  is  about  1,000,000  pounds;  the  annual  value  of  the 
labor  is  three  times  as  much,  or  3,000,000  pounds,  and  this  sum 
is  earned  by  about  750,000  of  the  1,100,000  inhabitants.  Each 
therefore  earns  -i%Vo0o0/>  or  4  pounds  a  year,  if  all  work,  or  8 
pounds  if  half  work. 

Petty's  estimates  for  England  occur  in  his  "  Political  Arithmetic" 
(1671-76,  Ch.  VII),  in  connection  with  an  argument  to  show  that 
the  country  could  stand  a  tax  of  one-tenth  of  the  whole  expense  of 
the  people.  He  proceeds  to  estimate  the  yield  of  such  a  tax  by 
estimating  the  average  expense  of  the  laborer  in  the  following 
naive  fashion:  The  laborer  earns,  without  board,  4s.  per  week; 
with  board,  2s.  per  week.  The  value  of  his  food,  therefore,  is  4s. 
minus  2s.,  which  equals  2s.  per  week,  or  £5  4s.  per  year.  The 
expense  of  clothes  cannot  be  less  than  the  wage  of  the  poorest 
maid-servant  in  the  country — 30s.  per  year.  (The  maid  is  given 
board  and  lodging,  and  must  provide  clothing  out  of  her  wages.) 
All  other  necessaries  cannot  be  less  than  6s.  more,  making  a 
total  for  the  year  of  7  pounds.*    A  tax,  now,  of  one-tenth  of  the 


*  Recapitulation: 

Food  per  week,  2s.;  per  year. 

Clothing  

All  other  


£.    s.  d. 
•5  4° 
.  1    10  o 
6  o 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 


annual  expense  of  10,000,000  subjects  would  yield  7,000,000 
pounds,  or  enough  to  pay  for  100,000  foot,  20,000  horse  and 
40,000  men  at  sea.  The  people  could  surely  bear  this  increase. 
They  would  only  have  to  work  one-twentieth  harder,  and  eat 
one-twentieth  less  than  before.* 

This  will  suffice  for  an  example  of  the  method  of  estimating 
costs  of  living.  Stephan  Bauer  cites  such  estimates  (Conrad: 
Handworterbuch  5:  318)  by  Vanderlint  (about  1735),  argu- 
ing prices  too  high;  by  Massie  (1756),  arguing  against  a  pro- 
posed house-tax;  by  Cantillon  (about  1750,  in  the  lost  chapters 
of  his  work),  giving  an  estimate  of  the  subsistence-minimum  in 
detail.  The  method  has  survived  to  the  present  day.  Edward 
Atkinson,  for  instance,  submitted  to  the  Aldrich  Committee, 
in  1892,  the  following  estimate  of  the  expenditures  of  a  laborer's 
family  having  an  income  of  $500: 


Clothing  was  subdivided  as  follows :  woolen,  45  per  cent. ;  cotton,  35 
per  cent.;  miscellaneous,  20  per  cent.    (Aldrich  Report  I;  liv,  lv.) 

The  value  of  estimates  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which 
they  are  made.  If  more  exact  data  are  not  to  be  had  they  are  often 
the  only  available  resource.  Estimates  like  those  cited  above  for  a 
hypothetical  family,  should  be  distinguished  from  estimates  made 
for  a  given  family  on  the  basis  of  a  more  or  less  careful  inquiry 
into  particulars.  Such  an  estimate  is  often  the  only  way  in  which 
the  second  method,  the  type-study,  can  be  applied. 

II.  Statements  of  Actual  Family  Receipts  and  Expendi- 
tures, Uncombined. — The  distressing  condition  of  the  laborers 
of  England  at  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century  gave  rise  to  much 
discussion  of  wages,  prices  and  the  poor  laws.  Two  works  of  this 
period  are  notable  for  their  attempts  to  get  at  the  exact  facts  by 

*  Petty  anticipates  the  phrase  "standard  of  living"  in  the  following:  The  ex- 
pense of  the  laborer  as  he  has  calculated  it,  he  says,  "may  well  enough  stand  for  the 
standard  of  expense  of  the  whole  mass  of  mankind."  Economic  writings  of  Sir 
William  Petty.    Hull's  edition,  i  :  306. 


Annual 


Expenditure ,    Per  Cent. 


Food 


$250  50 

100  20 

100  20 

50  10 

S500  100 


Clothing 
Rent.... 
Other. . . 


5 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


means  of  reports  of  actual  family  budgets.  These  books  are  Davies' 
"Case  of  the  Laborers  in  Husbandry"  (1795),  and  the  better 
known  "State  of  the  Poor,"  by  Sir  Frederick  Morton  Eden  (1797). 

Davies  was  a  clergyman  in  Barkham,  Berkshire,  and  the  purpose 
of  his  book  is  indicated  by  its  motto:  "The  labourer  is  worthy 
of  his  hire."  Davies  collected  accounts  on  his  visits  to  families  of 
his  parish  in  the  spring  of  1787.  Six  of  them  he  printed  and  sent 
around  to  friends  throughout  England,  asking  them  to  get  similar 
accounts  in  their  own  localities.  These  friends  for  the  most  part 
were  clergymen  and  country  squires.  Their  returns  were  printed 
in  full  in  the  appendix,  which  contains,  with  Davies'  own  con- 
tributions, accounts  from  1 5  counties  in  England,  2  in  Wales  and 
3  in  Scotland — 133  family  budgets  in  all.  The  method  employed 
was  to  set  down  the  weekly  costs  of  bread  and  other  items  of  food 
expenditure,  with  candles  and  thread.  This  was  added  together 
(8s.  1  id.  for  Davies'  first  family)  and  multiplied  by  52  (^23  4s. 
9d.).  To  this  was  added  a  fixed  annual  sum  covering  rent,  cloth- 
ing, fuel,  expenses  occasioned  by  sickness,  deaths  and  births, — 
estimated  in  1787  at  6  pounds  (later  7  pounds)  for  a  family  of  five. 

The  earnings  per  week  of  father,  mother  and  children  were  set 
down  and  multiplied  by  52.  In  balancing,  a  deficit  appeared  in 
practically  every  case,  even  where  poor-relief  was  figured  in.  It  is 
interesting  to  note  in  passing  that  Davies  proposed  to  have  the  jus- 
tices fix  a  minimum  wage  (Part  III,  Section  V),  and  that  one  of 
his  correspondents  complained  of  the  exploitation  of  the  poor  by 
"the  harpy  claws  of  pettifogging  lawyers,"  by  the  short  weights 
of  retailers,  and  by  the  small  loaves  of  the  sellers  of  bread  (p.  163). 

Of  greater  scientific  importance  is  Eden's  "State  of  the  Poor.'"* 
Besides  getting  information  through  clergymen  and  other  friends, 
he  sent  out  "a  competent  person"  and  furnished  him  with  an 
exhaustive  questionnaire.  His  question-sheet  included  these 
questions:  "Usual  diet  of  labourers";  "Earnings  and  expenses 
of  labourer's  family  for  a  year;  distinguishing  the  number  and  ages 
of  family;  and  price  and  quantity  of  their  articles  of  consumption." 
This  "faithful  and  intelligent  person"  he  kept  in  the  field  for  more 
than  a  year,  going  the  round  of  the  English  counties.    The  budgets, 

*  Marx  says  that  Eden  is  the  only  disciple  of  Adam  Smith  that  produced  a  work 
of  importance.    (Capital:  English  Translation,  2  :  269.) 

6 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 


from  whatever  source  derived,  are  published,  54  of  them  col- 
lectively, in  Appendix  XII,  Vol.  Ill  of  Eden's  work,  and  perhaps 
as  many  more  sandwiched  in  between  the  workhouse  accounts  and 
the  "parochial  reports"  (Volumes  II  and  III).  Engel  found  73  of 
them  complete  enough  to  tabulate  and  average.  The  method 
is  the  same  as  Davies' :  a  weekly  statement  of  earnings,  multi- 
plied by  52;  a  weekly  statement  of  cost  of  food,  multiplied 
by  52;  an  annual  statement  for  other  items  of  expenditure, 
but  figured  independently  for  each  family.  Fifty-seven  of  the 
73  summarized  by  Engel  reported  a  deficiency;  19  spent  more 
for  food  than  their  total  earnings.  The  method  of  calculating 
food-expenditures  may  explain  this  result,  although  food-prices 
in  1795  were  exceptionally  high.* 

The  difficulties  of  collecting  information  regarding  family 
expenditures  are  well  stated  by  Eden.  "It  must  be  confessed 
that  the  whole  annual  earnings  of  the  laborer  can  seldom  be 
ascertained  with  great  precision.  Some  men  are  so  habitually 
careless  that  they  are  totally  unable  to  give  any  satisfactory 
information;  others,  who  could  give  tolerable  answers,  think 
that  inquiries  concerning  them  can  have  no  important  object 
in  view,  and  are  therefore  inaccurate;  and  a  third  class  (which 
is  by  far  the  most  numerous),  are  so  apprehensive  that  the  ultimate 
object  of  questioning  them  is  to  effect  a  reduction  in  wages,  or 
something  equally  disagreeable,  that  they  are  unchangeably 
mysterious  and  insincere."  f 

No  marked  improvement  on  Eden's  method  appears  until  the 
second  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Then  we  have  the 
remarkable  work  of  Le  Play,{  who  carried  the  intensive  study 
of  family  accounts  to  the  highest  degree  of  excellence.  From 
1829  to  1856  he  spent  a  large  portion  of  his  vacations  (he  was 
professor  of  metallurgy  in  Paris),  in  traveling  through  the  countries 

*  In  Vol.  Ill:  711,  is  a  report  from  Epsom,  Surrey,  which  gives  the  budget  for  a 
gardener,  with  income  45  to  50  pounds;  expenditures  £75  is.  8d.  But  there  was 
no  such  deficiency  in  fact.  The  writer  says  that  he  has  tried  to  make  out  similar 
accounts  for  several  other  laborers,  but  found  that  they  always  appeared  to  spend 
more  than  they  either  got  or  had,  and  so  he  "suspected  that  their  statements  were 
inaccurate." 

t "  State  of  the  Poor."    Preface,  I  :  xxvi. 

%  Le  Play  was  born  in  1806,  and  died  in  1882.  A  good  account  of  his  work, 
by  Henry  Higgs,  may  be  found  in  the  "  Quarterly  J  ournal  of  Economics,"  IV  :  408. 

7 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


of  Europe,  studying  the  condition  of  workingmen's  families. 
His  method  was  to  make  in  each  place  careful  inquiry  of  clergy, 
teachers,  and  others  until  he  found  what  was  considered  to  be 
a  really  typical  family,  whether  a  Sheffield  cutler  or  a  Dutch 
fisherman,  and  then  he  would  arrange  to  live  with  the  family 
for  some  weeks  if  necessary,  observing  their  whole  manner  of  living. 
He  would  ask  questions,  make  notes  of  what  he  saw  and  heard,  and 
when  he  had  gathered  his  material,  would  prepare  a  family 
monograph,  containing  in  fifteen  or  twenty  octavo  pages  a  photo- 
graphic picture  of  the  given  family  group.  In  1855  he  published 
thirty-six  of  these  monographs  in  three  volumes,  entitled  "Les 
Ouvriers  Europeens."  He  subsequently  (1877- 1879)  added  two 
volumes  of  monographs  and  one  introductory  volume  on  method. 
He  made  studies  during  the  long  period  of  his  activity  of  some 
300  families,  but  carried  only  fifty-seven  of  them  to  the  point  where 
he  was  willing  to  have  them  published.  The  schedule  he  employed 
displays  the  thoroughness  of  his  method.  The  only  criticisms 
that  can  fairly  be  made  are:  first,  that  the  families  are  not 
necessarily  typical;  second,  that  the  details  are  carried  to  an 
illusive  degree  of  over-refinement.  For  instance,  the  festival- 
clothes  of  his  Dutch  family  are  valued,  and  one  one-hundredth 
of  the  value  is  set  down  in  the  annual  budget,  implying  that 
they  will  last  one  hundred  years.  Some  hint  of  his  tact  in 
winning  the  confidence  of  the  families  that  he  approached  may 
be  gained  from  his  statement  of  the  expedients  which  he  used 
for  this  purpose.  Le  Play  says*  that  he  always  had  the  good-will, 
even  affection,  of  families  investigated,  and  thinks  that  it  was 
due  to  the  method;  but  he  observed  the  following  expedients  for 
gaining  the  good-will  of  the  families: 

"Not  to  be  abrupt  in  pushing  inquiries, — an  introduction  from 
a  well-chosen  source  helps  in  abridging  the  preliminaries;  to 
secure  the  confidence  and  sympathy  of  the  family  by  explaining 
the  public  utility  of  the  inquiry,  and  the  disinterestedness  of  the 
observer;  to  sustain  the  attention  of  the  people  by  interesting 
conversation ;  to  indemnify  them  in  money  for  time  taken  by  the 
investigation;  to  praise  with  discrimination  the  good  qualities  of 

*  "La  Methodc  Sociale,"  1879,  pp.  222,  3.  (Vol.  i  of  "Les  Ouvriers  Europeens," 
Edition  of  1879.) 

8 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 

different  members;  to  make  judicious  distribution  of  little 
gifts  to  all/'* 

The  work  of  Le  Play  was  continued  by  his  followers  in  a  serial 
publication  entitled  "Les  Ouvriers  des  Deux  Mondes."  The 
volumes  are  made  up  of  family  monographs  prepared  on  the  same 
plan  as  those  of  Le  Play  himself.  Ninety-one  of  these  monographs 
are  included  in  the  ten  volumes  of  the  series  published.  The 
last  volume,  the  tenth,  appeared  in  1899. 

III.  The  Combination  of  Reports  of  Individual  Families. 
— The  transition  to  the  use  of  the  average  in  combining  working- 
men's  budgets  passed  through  three  stages:  First,  the  Brussels 
Statistical  Congress,  in  1853;  second,  the  preliminary  inquiry  in 
Belgium  under  direction  of  Ducpetiaux,  in  1853;  third,  the  elabor- 
ation of  the  data  of  Ducpetiaux  and  Le  Play  by  Ernst  Engel,  in 
1857.    Of  the  first  and  second,  Engel  gives  the  following  account:! 

Fletcher,  the  secretary  of  the  London  Exhibition  of  1851, 
persuaded  Visschers,  the  Belgian  Minister,  to  include  workingmen's 
budgets  in  the  program  of  the  International  Statistical  Congress 
to  be  held  in  Brussels.  Ducpetiaux,  the  Belgian  inspector  of 
prisons  and  charitable  institutions,  co-operated,  although  Fletcher, 
and  also  G.  R.  Porter,  of  England,  died  before  the  Congress  met. 
The  Belgian  Statistical  Bureau,  with  Quetelet  at  its  head,  ap- 
proved the  plan  of  Ducpetiaux  and  Visschers  for  an  immediate 
budget  inquiry,  so  as  to  have  something  to  lay  before  the  Congress. 
About  one  thousand  household  accounts  were  collected.  Those 
from  two  provinces  were  worked  up  by  the  Bureau  and  laid  before 
the  Congress,  and  final  publication  was  made  in  1855.  In  this 
inquiry  three  classes  were  distinguished: 

First,  dependent, — income  supplemented  by  public  relief. 

Second,  poor, — self-supporting  ordinarily,  but  saving  nothing. 

Third,  comfortably  off, — never  receiving  public  aid,  and  able 
to  lay  up  something  for  old  age.  " Typical"  families  were  sought; 
i.  e.,  having  2  parents,  and  4  children,  ages  16,  12,  6  and  2.  J 

Visschers  reported  to  the  Congress  a  scheme  for  household 

*  A  translation  of  one  of  Le  Play's  monographs  may  be  found  in  Appendix 
VII,  page  326. 

t  "  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiterfamilien,"  16. 

X  Engel  remarks  on  the  folly  of  this  limitation  to  the  "typical"  family,  claiming 
that  it  was  better  to  work  out  the  "quets." 

9 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


reports  which  was  adopted  without  change.  In  the  debate,  in 
answer  to  Horace  Say,  Visschers  said  that  "Laissez-faire,  laissez- 
passer"  should  not  justify  "laissez-souffrir,  laissez-mourir." 
The  schedule  thus  adopted  was  as  follows: 

I.  Income. 

A.  Salary  and  wages  of  father,  mother,  children,  with  record 

of  hours  of  work,  work-days  and  holidays  for  each 
member  of  the  family. 

B.  Other  sources  of  income: 

Produce  of  garden. 

Returns  for  house  or  land  rented. 

Returns  from  raising  of  live  stock. 

Share  in  commercial  privileges. 

Pensions — income  from  investments. 

Miscellaneous  income. 

Accidental  income. 

II.  Expenditures  (throughout  with  note  of  quantity  and  value 

or  price). 

A.  For  physical  necessaries  (Depenses  de  l'ordre  physique 

et  materiel). 

(a)  Food  (20  specifications,  including  wine,  etc.,  at  home). 

(b)  Dwelling  (with  number  of  rooms). 

(c)  Clothing,  for  adults  and  for  children. 

(d)  Beds. 

(e,  /)  Heat,  Light. 

(g)  Washing. 

(h)  Care  of  health. 

(i)  Care  in  disease. 

(k)  Dwelling:  maintenance  and  repair;  fire  insurance, 

(/)    Purchase  and  repair  of  furniture. 

(m)  Taxes. 

in)   Postage,  etc. 

(0,  p)  Expenditure  for  carrying  on  of  trade  (excluding 
raw  materials) ;  for  carrying  on  garden,  etc. 

B.  For  cultural   purposes    (Depenses    de   l'ordre  religieux, 

moral  et  intellectuel). 

(a)  Church. 

(b)  School-fees. 

(c)  Apprenticeship  charges. 

(d)  Books,  pictures,  etc. 

(e)  Dues  to  societies  for  religious,  moral  and  educational 
purposes. 

(/)  Dues  to  societies  for  sick-relief,  burial-expenses,  etc. 
(g)  Savings  deposits. 

10 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 

C.  Luxuries  and  extravagances  (Depenses  de  luxe  ou  resultant 
de  l'imprevoyance). 

(a)  Visits  to  cafes,  ale  houses,  etc. 

(b)  Tobacco. 

(c)  Gambling  and  lotteries. 
id)  Ornaments  (personal). 

(e,  /)  Theater, — Public  festivities. 

(g)  Interest  on  loans  and  pawnbroker's  charges. 

In  the  final  publication  of  his  returns  in  1855  ("  Budgets  Econom- 
iques")  Ducpetiaux  gives  the  data  gathered  in  1853  from  199 
families  in  accordance  with  the  scheme  laid  before  the  Congress. 
He  did  not  combine  the  returns  by  averages,*  but  he  did  under- 
take to  calculate  a  minimum  by  a  comparison  of  his  data  with 
the  standard  allowances  for  the  food  of  soldiers,  sailors  and  pris- 
oners. He  concluded  that  the  laborers  were  less  well-fed  than  the 
prisoners,  and  in  general  that  unless  wages  rose  or  the  prices  of 
provisions  went  down,  there  must  be  an  increase  in  pauperism 
and  crime,  and  in  the  death-rate. 

Ernst  Engel  (1821-1896)  had,  as  a  student,  accompanied  Le  Play 
on  some  of  his  excursions,  and  recalled  them  in  1895  as  red- 
letter  days  ("Lichtpunkte  meines  Lebens").  He  was,  in  1850, 
placed  at  the  head  of  the  Saxon  Statistical  Bureau,  and  in  1857, 
in  an  effort  to  estimate  the  balance  between  production  and  con- 
sumption in  the  kingdom,  made  a  thorough  statistical  elaboration 
of  the  figures  of  Ducpetiaux  and  Le  Play.t  Taking  first  the  Belgian 
budgets,  he  (1)  grouped  the  expenditures  under  9  heads,  instead  of 
the  more  extended  order  of  Ducpetiaux;  (2)  averaged  the  family 
total  under  each  of  the  9  heads  for  each  of  the  3  income-classes,  and 
for  all  classes  combined;  (3)  calculated  the  expenditure  per  capita 
for  each  of  the  9  headings  of  expenditure  for  the  Belgian  families, 
and  also  for  the  36  families  whose  budgets  had  been  published  by  Le 
Play;  (4)  calculated  the  percentage  of  total  expenditures  which  was 
spent  for  each  of  the  9  heads,  for  the  Belgian  families  and  for 
Le  Play's;  (5)  deduced  his  two  laws:  First,  The  smaller  the  income 

*  The  figures  in  the  budgets  are  not  combined  in  general  averages,  save  that  the 
local  authorities  in  two  or  three  provinces  returned  the  average  for  a  number  of 
families  in  place  of  individual  returns.  Wages  are  averaged  in  the  comparison  of 
laborers'  and  prisoners'  fare,  but  not  the  details  of  expenditure. 

t  From  this  he  argued  that  the  poorer  people  paid  the  greater  share  of  the  in- 
direct taxes,  which  fell  largely  upon  articles  of  food  and  drink. 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


the  greater  the  proportionate  expenditure  for  food;  second,  The 
proportion  expended  for  food  is  a  sure  index  of  the  material 
prosperity  of  a  people.  He  then  (6)  estimated  for  a  family 
in  Saxony  in  each  class,  the  percentage-expenditure  under  each 
of  his  nine  heads;  (7)  tabulated  the  per  cent,  of  the  income 
paid  for  food  in  a  table  of  incomes  rising,  by  stages  of  100  francs, 
from  200  francs,  with  72.96  per  cent,  for  food,  to  3000  francs, 
with  56.90  per  cent,  for  food;*  (8)  derived  from  the  table  for 
families  of  the  third  class,  having  incomes  of  1200  to  1300  francs, 
a  scale  for  measuring  miserliness,  parsimony,  economy  and  ex- 
travagance in  the  expenditures  of  a  given  family;  (9)  applied 
his  estimate  for  typical  Saxon  families  (see  (6)  above)  to  the 
1,894,431  inhabitants  of  Saxony,  reported  by  the  Census  of  1849, 
and  thus  reached  the  lump  sum  of  94,721,500  thalers  as  the  total 
value  of  the  consumption  of  all  families;  (10)  estimated  from  the 
statistics  of  occupations  the  numbers  engaged  in  producing  the  com- 
modities in  each  of  his  9  expenditure-groups,  and  calculated  whether 
the  production  per  individual  was  equal  to  the  consumption. 

The  subjoined  table  shows  the  percentages  as  calculated  by 
Engel.  It  is  noteworthy  that  these  Saxon  percentages,  which 
are  the  basis  of  the  deductions  familiar  under  the  name  of  Engei's 
Law,  are  based,  not  on  an  original  collection  of  Saxon  budgets, 
but  on  estimates  obtained  from  the  study  of  Ducpetiaux's  Belgian 
budgets. 

BELGIUM 


Average 

Income. 

(All 

565  fr. 

796  fr. 

1197  fr. 

Families.) 

856.5  fr. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

70.8 

67.4 

62.O 

65.8 

Clothing  

11.7 

13.2 

14.0 

13.2 

Shelter  

8.7 

8-3 

9.0 

8-7 

5-6 

5-5 

5-4 

5-5 

Utensils  

0.6 

1.2 

2-3 

1.6 

Education  

0.4 

1.0 

1.2 

1.0 

Public  security  

0.2 

0.5 

0.9 

0.6 

Health  

i-7 

2.8 

4-3 

3-2 

0.2 

0.2 

0.4 

°-3 

*  Zeitschrift  des  statistischen  Bureaus  des  koniglichen  Sachsischen  Ministeriums 
des  Innern,  1857:  153  ff. 

12 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 


SAXONY 


Average  Income. 

Under  1200  fr. 

1200  to  3000  fr. 

Over  3000  fr. 

(Working  Class.) 

(Middle  Class.) 

(Well-to-do.) 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Per  Cent. 

Food  

62 

55 

5o 

Clothing  

16 

18 

18 

Shelter  

12 

12 

12 

Heat  and  light  

5 

5 

5 

2 

2 

3-5 

5-5 

I 

2 

3 

Health  

I  ■ 

2 

3 

I 

2-5 

3-5 

This  shows  what  can  be  done  by  the  use  of  the  statistical  method. 
For  the  sake  of  showing  the  further  developments  in  the  appli- 
cation of  the  method,  let  us  pass  to  the  last  work  of  Engel's  life, 
"Die  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiterfamilien"  (1895),  where 
he  works  over  once  more  Ducpetiaux's  and  Le  Play's  figures 
of  1855,  and  also  elaborates  the  returns  from  a  Belgian  inquiry 
of  1 89 1  and  compares  them  with  the  earlier  returns.  What 
is  new  in  this  second  treatment  is: 

1.  The  use  of  his  unit  of  comparison,  the  "quet,"  for  families 

of  varying  composition  (see  later). 

2.  The  arrangement,  in  terms  of  this  unit,  of  the  averages  of 

the  5  income-groups  so  as  to  show: 

(1)  Value  of  the  unit  in  marks,  in  1853  and  1891. 

(2)  Ratios  of  increase  in  different  items  of  1891  over  1853. 

(3)  Variations  in  percentages  spent  on  the  separate  items 
in  the  various  groups. 

3.  Calculations  of  food-consumption  with  reference  to  dietary 

requirements  on  the  basis  of  Voit's  tables.    In  this 
connection  occurs  a  comparison  of  city  and  country 
budgets  and  a  study  of  Ducpetiaux's  estimate,  on 
prisoners'-fare  basis,  of  the  minimum. 
The  results  of  the  comparison  of  the  Belgian  investigations 
of  1853  and  1 89 1  showed  an  increase  of  198  per  cent,  per  "quet" 
in  expenditure  for  food,  and  that  there  was  no  lessening  in  the 

13 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


percentage  of  the  total  expenditures  that  was  spent  for  the 
satisfaction  of  physical  wants.  The  figures  of  the  comparison 
are  as  follows: 


Francs  Per  Quet. 

Per  Cent. 

Ratio  of 
Increase. 

1853 

1891 

1853 

1891 

Subsistence  

49.27 

97-55 

93.80 

96.30 

1.98 

Food  

34.00 

16.00 

64.90 

65.66 

1.96 

Clothing  

7-77 

14.78 

14.80 

14-57 

1.90 

3-96 

9-77 

7-55 

9.64 

2.47 

Fuel  and  light  

2.94 

5-33 

5.60 

5-25 

1.81 

Health  

0.52 

1.24 

0.99 

1.22 

2.38 

The  most  original  proposition  contained  in  this  final  work 
of  Engel's  was  his  solution  of  the  difficulty  involved  in  comparing 
families  differing  in  the  number,  age,  and  sex  of  their  members. 
Before  speaking  of  Engel's  solution  it  may  be  well  to  note  some 
other  ways  of  meeting  the  difficulty  that  have  been  proposed. 

The  simplest  method  is  to  reduce  everything  to  a  per  capita 
basis,  dividing  expenditures  for  each  family  by  the  number  of 
persons  in  the  family.  This  neglects  the  differences  in  con- 
sumption that  go  with  differences  in  age.  A  second  solution  is  to 
include  in  the  investigation  only  families  exactly  alike  as  to  com- 
position. Ducpetiaux  proposed  to  use  only  families  consisting 
of  father,  mother,  and  4  children,  aged  respectively  16, 
12,  6  and  2.  Col.  Carroll  D.  Wright  defined  a  "normal" 
family  in  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  as 
one  consisting  of  father,  mother,  not  over  5  children,  none 
over  14,  and  no  other  members.  The  difficulty  with  Ducpetiaux's 
method  is  that  it  restricts  so  much  the  number  of  families  avail- 
able that  it  increases  greatly  the  task  of  gathering  the  returns. 
The  more  flexible  limits  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  di- 
minish the  difficulty  but  do  not  remove  it.  Of  the  25,440  families 
included  in  the  annual  report  of  1903,  only  1 1 , 1 56,  or  less  than 
half,  were  "normal." 

A  third  method,  applied  by  the  earlier  investigators,  is  to 

14 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 

apply  the  rule  of  thumb,  and  count  2  children  as  equal  to  1 
adult.  A  fourth  method  is  to  calculate  the  relative  consuming- 
power  of  persons  of  different  ages  and  sexes,  and  evaluate  each 
family  in  terms  of  a  common  unit,  usually  the  demands  of  1 
adult  man.  This  has  been  undertaken  with  reference  to  food 
by  most  of  those  who  have  gone  into  the  study  of  dietetics. 
The  results  reached  by  various  authorities  may  be  compared 
in  the  following  table: 


EQUIVALENCE  OF  DIETARY  REQUIREMENTS,  STATED  IN  PER- 
CENTAGES OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  OF  AN  ADULT  MAN 


Foley* 

ATWATER.t 

u.  s. 

Bureau 
of  Labor.  J: 

ROWNTREE.  § 

Engel.  II 

Father  

100 

IOO 

100 

IOO 

IOO 

80  to  60 

SO 

90 

So 

86 

Child  1 1  to  14  years  

60 

70  to  80 

90 

60 

70 

Child  7  to  10  years  

50  to  60 

75 

50 

57 

40 

40 

40 

40 

42 

20 

30 

30 

30 

37 

Engel's  proposition  was  an  elaboration  of  this  fourth  method. 
On  the  basis  of  a  comparison  of  the  average  weight  per  centimeter 
of  height,  for  a  large  number  of  persons  at  different  ages,  he  con- 
cluded that  a  man  of  25  or  over  required  3.5  times  as  much  as  a 
child  in  its  first  year,  and  that  for  each  intermediate  year  between 
the  first  and  the  twenty-fifth,  there  was  an  increase  of  one-tenth 
over  the  demands  for  the  first  year.  That  is,  a  child  of  10  would 
consume  twice  as  much  as  a  child  under  a  year  old;  a  child  of 
15,  2.5  times  as  much,  and  so  on.  A  woman  reaches  her  full 
measure  at  20,  when  she  needs  3  units.  These  units  Engel 
named,  after  the  famous  Quetelet,  "quets."  The  consumption 
of  every  family  could  be  reduced  to  a  common  denominator  by 

*  In  Davies'  "  Case  of  the  Laborers  in  Husbandry,"  1795,  p.  161. 
f  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmer's  Bulletin  No.  142,  p.  33. 
%  Eighteenth  Annual  Report  (1903),  p.  19. 
§  "  Poverty,"  p.  229. 

||  " Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiterfamilien,"  p.  5,  the  "quets"  being  reduced 
for  comparison  to  percentages  of  the  adult's  3.5  quets. 

15 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


dividing  the  expenditures  in  a  given  case  by  the  number  of 
"quels."  * 

Engel's  methods  have  been  applied  on  an  extensive  scale  by 
the  American  state  and  national  Labor  Bureaus.  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  in  the  Massachusetts  Labor  Report  for  1875,  published 
the  budgets  of  397  families  and  classified  the  returns  according  to  a 
large  number  of  categories.  His  method  of  gathering  returns  was 
to  send  enumerators  supplied  with  a  rather  brief  schedule  to  the 
factory  towns  to  accost  the  men  as  they  left  the  factory,  and  ask 
one  after  another  until  one  was  found  who  was  willing  to  furnish 
the  information.  The  workman  was  visited  in  his  home,  and  the 
schedule  was  filled  out  on  the  basis  of  his  recollections  and  such 
written  memoranda  as  he  might  have. 

Substantially  this  method  has  been  employed  in  many  state 
compilations,  and  in  those  of  the  United  States  Labor  Bureau, 
of  which  Colonel  Wright  became  head  in  1888.  In  1890,  this 
bureau  gathered  budgets  from  2490  families  of  men  engaged  in  the 

*  The  following  table  exhibits  the  number  of  quets  and  the  weight  in  grammes 
per  centimeter,  corresponding  to  the  several  ages.  (Lebenskosten  Belgischer 
Arbeiterfamilien,  s,  5.) 


Weight  in  Grammes 

Age.  Units  (Quets).  per  Centimeter. 

0   1.0  62.3 

1   1.1  132. 1 

2   1.2  139-8 

3    I-3  140.7 

4   i-4  149-5 

5   i-S  I57-7 

6   1.6  160.6 

7   1-7  l68-5 

8   1.8  174.2 

9   1.9  181. 2 

10   2.0  187.6 

11   2.1  198.8 

12   2.2  210.0 

13   2-3  233.1 

14   2.4  253.2 

15   2.5  275.2 

16   2.6  304.0 

17   2.7  315.5 

18   2.8  340.4 

19   2.9 

20   3.0  350.0 

21  -   31   

22   3.2   

23   3-3 

24   3  4 

25   3-5  36S-4 


16 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 


coal,  iron,  and  steel  industries  in  the  United  States,  and  also  of 
770  in  Europe  engaged  in  the  same  industries.  In  1891,  budgets 
of  5284  families  in  the  textile  manufactures  and  glass-works  of  the 
United  States  were  reported  on,  together  with  several  hundred 
in  Europe.  The  report  of  1903  includes  a  still  greater  number; 
viz.,  25,440  in  33  states  (including  the  District  of  Columbia), 
most  of  them  gathered  during  the  calendar  year  1901. 

The  report  of  1903  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  method. 
First,  the  returns  are  classified  for  the  whole  25,440;  but,  second, 
a  selection  is  made  of  the  1 1,156  normal  families,  (having  husband 
at  work,  wife,  not  over  5  children,  none  over  14,  with  no  depen- 
dent boarder,  lodger,  or  servant,  and  having  expenditures  reported 
for  food,  clothing,  rent,  fuel  and  light  and  sundries.)  Third  are 
tabulated  the  budgets  of  2567  families  furnishing  details  as  to 
expenditure  for  various  group-items;  and  fourth,  details  for  food 
for  the  1043  of  these  2567  that  were  normal. 

The  returns  are  summarized  and  averaged:  (1)  By  states, 
(2)  by  nativity,  (3)  by  states  and  nativity,  (4)  by  number  in 
family,  (5)  by  amount  of  income. 

In  marked  contrast  to  the  extensive  method  of  the  labor  bureaus  in 
the  United  States  is  the  method  that  has  been  employed  in  a  few  in- 
stances in  England,  Germany  and  Switzerland.  It  may  be  called  the 
account-book  method.  A  selected  family  is  persuaded  to  keep  a  daily 
account  of  every  penny  received  and  spent,  and  from  these  accounts 
the  budget  is  drawn  off  in  due  form  by  the  investigator.  Landolt, 
of  basel,  published  an  elaborate  exposition  of  this  method  in  1894. 

In  briefer  form  his  account  of  it  appears  in  the  "Bulletin  de 
lTnstitut  Internationale  de  Statistique,"  1 891 .  In  that  year 
he  published  10  workingmen's  budgets  obtained  in  Basel.  His 
exhaustive  schedule  includes  an  inventory  of  every  pin  and  crust 
in  the  house  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  year.  It 
includes  the  suggestive  question,  "Are  there  rats  or  mice  in  the 
house?  How  long  have  they  been  there?"  This  method,  es- 
sentially, was  employed  in  two  well-known  English  inquiries 
into  conditions  of  living;  Charles  Booth's  in  London,  1889,* 
and  B.  S.  Rowntree's  in  York,  1901.! 

*  "Life  and  Labor  of  the  People  in  London." 
t  " Poverty:  A  Study  of  Town  Life." 
17 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


In  the  first  volume  of  Booth  are  published  30  family  budgets, 
distributed  among  3  income-classes  (under  20s.  4d.  per  week,  6 
families;  20s.  4d.  to  22s.  8d.,  10  families;  22s.  8d.  to  32s.,  14 
families.)  Accounts  were  kept  for  5  weeks.  Expenses  are  re- 
duced to  a  weekly  basis,  and  food  values  reduced  to  a  uniform 
man-per-day  scale.  Mr.  Booth  was  also  one  of  the  co-operators 
in  the  work  of  the  Economic  Club  of  London,  which,  in  1896, 
published  the  budgets  of  "Twenty-eight  British  Households," 
gathered  1 891 -1894.  These  families  were  scattered  over  England, 
and  were  induced  to  keep  accounts  for  not  less  than  a  month,  by  the 
visitors  who  co-operated  in  the  undertaking.  The  introduction, 
signed  by  Messrs.  Booth,  Aves  and  Higgs,  says,  with  great  truthful- 
ness: "We  cannot,  in  inquiries  of  this  kind,  expect  to  be  able  to 
give  the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth.  All  we 
can  hope  to  arrive  at  is  the  truth,  nearly  all  the  truth,  and  very 
little  but  the  truth."    Possible  objections  are  stated  as  follows: 

1 .  Absence  of  any  budget  of  important  classes  of  the  community. 

2.  Incompleteness  of  analysis  and  enumeration  in  many  cases. 

3.  Small  number  of  budgets  given. 

4.  Modifications  of  accounts  due  to  fact  that  they  are  to  be 
inspected;  e.  g.,  as  to  drinks  and  other  indulgences.  In  answer 
to  the  fourth  objection  it  is  rejoined;  first,  that  accounts  are  of 
respectable  families,  where  such  expenditures  will  be  relatively 
small;  second,  that  the  accounts  of  respectable  families  are  the 
most  representative. 

Before  Rowntree's  study  of  York  was  published,  Professor  W.  O. 
Atwater  had,  in  this  country,  conducted  his  investigation  into 
dietary  standards.  Without  going  into  detail  in  regard  to  this  in- 
vestigation it  may  be  said  that  it  consisted  of  two  parts;  first,  the 
determination,  by  the  use  of  his  copper  chamber  for  the  measuring 
of  wastes  given  off  from  the  body,  of  the  amount  of  food  required  to 
maintain  the  physical  efficiency  of  the  human  body;  second,  the 
examination  of  the  dietary  of  selected  workingmen's  families  to 
find  out  whether  it  included  the  requisite  amount  of  protein  to 
build  up  muscular  tissue  and  enough  of  fats  and  carbo-hydrates 
to  serve  as  fuel  to  supply  heat  and  energy.* 

*  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  142,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  gives  in  condensed 
popular  form  the  results  of  Professor  Atwater's  inquiries. 

18 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 

Atwater's  standard  for  the  daily  consumption  of  an  adult 
man,  at  moderate  muscular  work,  is  125  grammes  of  protein  and 
3500  calories  of  heat-energy, — roughly,  what  is  contained  in  ij 
pounds  of  lean  beef  for  the  protein  and  in  i\  pounds  of  bread 
(10  cents'  worth)  for  the  heat-giving  food.  He  worked  out  also  a 
scale,  to  which  reference  has  already  been  made,  for  reducing  the 
food  demands  of  other  members  of  a  family  to  aliquot  parts  of 
the  consumption  of  the  man  at  moderate  muscular  work.  (See 
pages  15  and  125.) 

In  the  examination  of  actual  food  consumed,  the  accounts  of 
food  expenditures  of  representative  families  for  10  days  were 
secured  by  visitors,  and  were  reduced  by  the  use  of  the  scale  to 
their  equivalents  in  the  consumption  of  an  adult  man.  Then 
the  nutritive  value  of  the  articles  purchased  for  the  week  was 
estimated  by  the  use  of  the  results  of  chemical  analysis  of  bread, 
meat,  etc.,  and  the  resulting  number  of  grammes  of  protein  and 
calories-  of  energy,  compared  on  a  man-per-day  basis  with  the 
normal  requirements  of  the  standard  as  previously  ascertained. 
These  budgets  of  food-consumption  were  gathered  in  New  York 
in  1895  (21  families)  and  1896  (36  families)  and  subsequently  in 
nine  other  localities. 

It  was  with  these  standards  of  dietary  requirements  in  mind 
that  Rowntree  gathered  his  budgets  in  York  in  190 1.  He  gave 
note-books  to  housewives,  and  published  returns  for  18  working- 
class  families,  having  discarded  accounts  received  from  17  more. 
He  also  got  returns  from  6  families  of  the  servant-keeping  class. 
Of  the  18  published  budgets,  11  covered  a  period  not  exceeding 
4  weeks  (6  were  for  3  weeks),  7  were  kept  for  more  than  4  weeks, 
and  3  for  13  weeks.  The  food-expenditures  are  compared  on  the 
basis  of  a  reduction  to  a  uniform  man-per-day  equivalent,  accord- 
ing to  Atwater's  scale.  The  results  are  presented  in  striking 
diagrams,  showing  a  standard  for  families  with  incomes  under  26 
shillings  a  week  much  below  the  requirements  of  a  normal  dietary. 

An  interesting  collection  of  budgets  was  made  by  Dr.  S.  E. 
Forman  in  Washington,  D.  C,  and  published  in  United  States 
Labor  Bulletin  No.  64,  May,  1906.  Nineteen  families  are  here 
reported,  and  the  detail  of  entries  in  their  account-books  is 
published,  as  well  as  summaries  and  averages.    The  accounts  were 

19 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


kept  for  3  weeks  in  August  and  September,  1905,  and  2  weeks 
in  January,  1906.  The  families  were  very  close  to  the  line  of 
dependence,  and  the  returns  are  skillfully  interpreted  to  show 
such  particulars  as  that  in  the  week  when  the  monthly  rent  was 
paid  the  food-expenditure  fell.  The  increased  cost  of  goods 
purchased  in  small  amounts  also  appears,  one  family  sending  three 
times  a  day  to  purchase  tea. 

An  application  of  Le  Play's  method  on  an  extensive  scale  has 
been  made  by  Mrs.  Louise  Bolard  More.*  Two  hundred  families 
living  in  the  Greenwich  district  in  New  York  City  were  visited 
by  Mrs.  More  and  her  co-workers,  and  persuaded  to  keep  accounts. 
Frequent  visits  were  made  throughout  a  period  of  nearly  two  years, 
and  the  data  regarding  the  family  budget  gathered  by  careful 
and  repeated  questions,  supplemented  in  50  cases  by  accounts 
kept  for  periods  varying  from  a  week  to  a  year. 

In  looking  back  over  the  various  attempts  to  find  out  how  the 
laborer  spends  his  earnings,  it  is  interesting  to  note  the  occasions 
that  gave  rise  to  the  inquiries,  and  the  uses  that  have  been  made  of 
their  conclusions.  Financial  exigencies  of  governments  gave  rise  to 
the  earliest  attempts  that  we  have  noted.  The  purpose  was  to 
find  whether  an  increase  of  taxes  could  be  borne  by  the  working 
population.  Another  occasion  for  these  inquiries  is  the  economic 
distress  of  the  people,  as  seen  in  high  prices  for  food,  lack  of  em- 
ployment, increasing  demand  for  poor-relief,  unrest  and  discontent 
— "les  plaies  sociales,"  as  Visschers  put  it.  This  distress  is  sometimes 
acute,  as  in  Eden's  day,  or  at  the  time  of  the  two  Belgian  in- 
vestigations. It  may  be  chronic,  like  that  of  London  and  York 
that  gave  rise  to  the  studies  of  Booth  and  Rowntree.  Scientific 
interest  as  well  as  humanitarian  zeal  attracted  Engel  and  Le  Play 
to  the  investigation  of  the  subject,  and  the  necessity  of  justifying 
their  raison  d'etre  has  apparently  led  some  of  our  state  labor 
bureaus  to  enter  the  field. 

The  uses  which  have  been  made  of  the  results  of  inquiries  into 
the  cost  of  living  are  manifold.  Le  Play  sought  to  utilize  his 
family  monographs  in  his  argument  for  the  maintenance  of  the 
monogamic  family  and  paternal  authority.  Engel  connected 
his  studies  with  generalizations  regarding  the  economic  welfare 

*  "  Wage-earner's  Budgets."    New  York,  1907. 
20 


workingmen's  budgets  in  statistical  literature 

of  the  nation.  Eden  argued  from  his  reports  the  need  of  changes 
in  the  poor  laws  and  other  remedial  legislation.  Davies  deduced 
from  his  data  the  need  of  establishing  by  law  a  minimum  wage. 
Dietary  experts  use  the  figures  of  expenditure  for  food  to  show 
the  need  of  education  in  domestic  science,  and  protectionists  com- 
pare standards  of  living  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe  to 
justify  the  protective  tariff.  Arbitrators  appeal  to  the  figures 
of  the  family  budget  in  deciding  on  the  reasonableness  of  a  given 
wage-scale,  and  charitable  organizations  want  to  know  how  much 
a  dependent  family  needs  in  order  to  live  according  to  a  normal 
standard. 

It  seems  plain  from  a  consideration  of  the  results  of  the  various 
methods  that  have  been  applied,  that  both  the  intensive  and  the 
extensive  methods  are  valuable,  and  that  they  should  supplement 
each  other.  The  intensive  study  of  a  single  family  can  be  applied 
to  but  a  limited  number  of  cases,  and  the  assumption  that  a  given 
case  is  typical  may  be  mistaken.  The  extensive  method  can  include 
a  large  number  of  cases,  and  eliminate,  by  the  use  of  the  average, 
the  exceptional  case,  but  it  cannot  give  the  intimate  knowledge 
of  detail  that  the  type-study  attains.  With  the  extensive  method 
to  give  breadth  and  perspective,  and  the  intensive  study  to  give 
coloi  and  definiteness  to  the  outlines  obtained  by  the  extensive 
method,  the  study  of  the  family  budget  can  best  be  made  to  bring 
out  the  standard  of  living. 


21 


PART  I 

The  Method  of  the  Investigation 


The  Method  of  the  Investigation 

The  origin  and  purpose  of  the  investigation  have  been  sum- 
marized in  the  introductory  statement  on  page  xiii.  Before  setting 
forth  the  results  obtained  it  is  in  order  to  give  some  account  of 
the  methods  employed,  both  as  an  aid  in  the  interpretation  of 
the  data  secured  and  as  a  means  of  making  the  lessons  of  our 
experience  available  for  other  investigators. 

i.  The  Schedule. — The  schedule  was  prepared,  as  has  been 
stated,  by  a  sub-committee.  After  an  examination  of  the 
schedules  used  in  other  inquiries  into  family  budgets,  it  seemed 
best  to  make  one  that  should  be  detailed  and  comprehensive. 
A  copy  of  the  form  used,  and  a  general  interpretation  of 
the  meaning  of  the  items  included,  may  be  found  in  Appen- 
dix III  (page  283).  The  schedule  seemed,  to  some  of  those  who 
undertook  to  work  with  it,  needlessly  detailed.  But  it  was  neces- 
sary to  push  the  questions  far  enough  to  include  a  specification  of 
what  was  had  for  the  money  expended,  if  much  light  was  to  be  had 
on  the  very  important  question  as  to  what  the  families  enjoyed 
in  return  for  their  expenditures  for  food,  clothing,  amusements, 
and  other  purposes.  For  this  reason  the  dimensions  of  the  rooms 
were  called  for,  and  the  enumeration  of  the  forms  of  recreation, 
and  even  an  inventory  of  the  furniture  in  each  room.  A  further 
reason  for  elaboration  of  detail  was  the  fact  that  in  this  way  fewer 
expenditures  would  be  likely  to  be  omitted  than  if  only  a  gross 
total  were  asked  for.  The  only  way  in  which  a  firm  or  a  family 
can  find  out  exactly  what  it  spends  for  a  given  purpose  is  to  add  up 
all  the  separate  items  included  under  the  main  head.  To  specify 
as  many  as  possible  of  these  items  in  advance,  therefore,  must 
conduce  to  the  likelihood  of  their  being  included  in  the  returns  as 
rendered.  Inasmuch  as  the  schedules  were  to  be  worked  out  by  a 
number  of  different  enumerators,  it  was  all  the  more  desirable  to 
make  the  questions  minute  and  definite  enough  to  secure  uniformity 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  data  gathered  by  the  various  reporters. 

25 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


In  the  light  of  experience  in  the  use  of  the  schedule  that  was 
adopted,  it  may  be  said  to  have  been  well  adapted  to  its  purpose. 
Though  it  appeared  somewhat  complicated,  it  was  a  workable 
form.  Its  exhaustiveness  was  discouraging  to  volunteer  re- 
porters, whether  from  settlements  or  from  labor  unions.  But 
those  who  persisted  with  it  did  secure  a  pretty  full  and  definite 
description  of  the  manner  of  living  of  the  families  visited.  "  You've 
got  our  whole  story,"  said  one  woman,  after  answering  the  ques- 
tions. A  few  redundancies  and  ambiguities  appeared  as  it  was 
used,  and  a  few  omissions,  such  as  that  of  macaroni  from  the 
food  list.  Though  some  of  the  visitors  were  inclined  to  think 
that  considerable  facility  in  the  use  of  the  simple  processes  of 
arithmetic  was  demanded,  only  a  very  elementary  knowledge  of 
bookkeeping  was  needed  to  fill  out  the  forms. 

The  effort  to  secure  information  on  the  basis  of  a  year's  ex- 
penditure led  to  some  difficulties,  especially  in  regard  to  the 
amount  expended  for  food.  Here  the  weekly  expenditure  for 
the  various  food-stuffs  was  put  down  in  detail  and  the  yearly 
expenditure  was  obtained  by  multiplying  each  weekly  item  by 
52 — or  a  less  number  for  articles  used  for  less  than  a  year — and 
adding  the  sums  together.  Where  a  family  keeps  a  careful 
account,  this  result  can  be  checked  up  and  verified.  But  where 
the  weekly  expenditure  is  only  an  estimate  made  by  the  house- 
wife, a  total  obtained  by  this  process  can  be  only  a  rough  approxi- 
mation. On  the  other  hand,  many  careful  housewives  allow 
regularly  a  definite  sum  per  week  for  the  table,  and  the  smaller 
this  sum,  the  more  exactly  is  the  spender  likely  to  know  of  the 
detail  of  its  apportionment,  and  the  smaller  are  the  variations 
likely  to  be  from  week  to  week. 

2.  The  Enumerators. — Those  who  filled  out  the  schedules  may 
be  grouped  into  three  classes:  social  workers,  without  pay,  trades- 
union  members,  and  paid  schedule-reporters.  Until  the  appro- 
priation was  made  from  the  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  the  schedules 
were  entirely  in  the  hands  of  visitors  of  the  first  class.  Over  400 
schedules  were  distributed  among  these  volunteers,  and  57  were 
returned,  filled  out  by  43  different  persons,  including  residents 
of  settlements,  visitors  connected  with  churches  and  charitable 
organizations,  and  students  in  Columbia  University  and  in  the 

26 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

School  of  Philanthropy.  These  persons  had  the  great  advantage 
of  possessing  already  the  confidence  of  the  families  interviewed, 
so  that  it  was  easy  to  secure  the  information.  They  also  were 
able  to  check  up  the  statements  made  on  the  basis  of  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  living  in  their  own  neighborhoods. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  time  required  to  complete  the  inquiries 
of  the  schedule  was  more  than  many  of  these  busy  workers 
could  afford;  and  so,  with  the  best  of  good-will  on  their  part, 
the  number  of  schedules  that  they  sent  in  was  comparatively  small. 
These  reports,  however,  as  compared  with  those  received  from 
paid  visitors,  are  fuller  and  richer  in  minor  details  that  often 
give  an  illuminating  glimpse  of  unsuspected  family  problems. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  volunteers,  as  a  whole,  had  greater  diffi- 
culty with  the  mathematical  pitfalls  of  the  schedule  than  those 
who  acquired  facility  in  this  respect  by  frequent  repetition. 

The  co-operation  of  the  trades  unions  was  sought,  and  at  the 
suggestion  of  Mr.  Herman  Robinson,  of  the  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  schedules  were  sent  to  the  secretaries  of  some  300 
unions  in  Greater  New  York,  with  the  offer  to  pay  for  sched- 
ules returned  at  the  same  rate  that  was  given  to  the  visitors 
employed  by  the  Committee.  Much  interest  in  the  investigation 
was  expressed,  and  34  reports  in  all  were  received  from  representa- 
tives of  the  unions.  Doubtless  the  complexity  of  the  schedule  dis- 
couraged many.  The  reports  received  were  of  convincing  genuine- 
ness and  full  of  instructive  detail,  although  not  always  entirely 
satisfactory  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  accountant.  Valuable 
comments  and  suggestions  as  to  the  work  of  the  Committee  were 
embodied  in  a  letter  accompanying  one  of  these  trades-union 
schedules,  and  the  letter  is  reprinted  on  page  34. 

The  paid  visitors  were  employed  as  soon  as  funds  were  avail- 
able to  hire  them.  Twenty-one  different  persons  were  employed 
for  longer  or  shorter  periods  in  visiting  families  and  filling  out 
schedules,  to  say  nothing  of  10  others  who  registered  for  service,  but 
for  various  reasons  gave  it  up  without  turning  in  any  schedules. 
Altogether,  551  schedules  were  received  from  these  paid  reporters, 
424  coming  from  the  9  persons  who  turned  in  more  than  20 
apiece.  The  first  members  of  the  paid  staff  were  set  to  work  June 
1  ith,  and  the  greater  number  of  their  reports  were  filled  in  during 

27 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


the  months  of  July  and  August.  The  paid  visitors  were  chiefly 
persons  who  either  possessed  a  personal  acquaintance  with  families 
suitable  for  the  purposes  of  the  inquiry,  or  who  had  had  experience 
in  similar  social  work.  Of  those  who  brought  in  5  or  more 
schedules,  5  were  teachers,  5  had  been  connected  with  some  form 
of  organized  charity,  3  were  labor-union  members,  1  was  a 
physician,  1  an  ex-insurance-collector.  Ten  were  women;  13 
men.  Two  of  the  most  successful  were  married  women.  Visitors 
who  spoke  Italian  and  Yiddish  were  sent  to  the  Italian  and  Jewish 
families.  All  of  these  visitors  grew  more  apt  in  the  work  with  prac- 
tice, and  some  of  those  who  had  their  first  taste  of  such  work  in  this 
undertaking  developed  marked  interest  and  skill.  The  visitors  were 
paid,  some  of  them  $50  a  month,  the  others  at  the  rate  of  $1.50 
for  each  schedule  returned.  A  comparison  of  the  results  of  the 
two  methods  of  payment  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  time-wage 
produced  the  best  results.  The  best  visitors  did  not  average  more 
than  one  schedule  a  day,  by  whichever  method  paid,  but  the  desire 
to  increase  earnings  tempted  some  of  those  on  the  piece-wage  basis 
to  try  to  double  this  rate,  with  the  result  that  many  of  their  re- 
ports had  to  be  rejected.  On  the  other  hand,  the  piece-payment 
made  it  possible  to  secure  the  services  of  some  especially  com- 
petent persons,  who  could  give  only  a  part  of  their  time  to  the 
work.  The  importance  of  the  work  of  the  visitors  was  recognized 
from  the  outset  of  the  investigation,  inasmuch  as  on  their  accu- 
racy depended  the  whole  value  of  the  returns.  It  may  be  ques- 
tioned whether  a  somewhat  higher  rate  of  remuneration  would 
not  have  resulted  in  securing  a  larger  number  of  reliable  schedules, 
even  though  the  total  number  handed  in  were  not  so  great. 

3.  The  Families  Interviewed. — The  families  were  selected 
on  the  basis  of  their  willingness  and  ability  to  give  the  information 
that  was  sought.  Dependent  families  were  excluded,  and  the 
visitors  tried  to  find  families  of  normal  composition  and  of  moder- 
ate size,  that  is,  having  both  parents  living  and  from  2  to  4 
children  under  16  years  of  age.  As  to  the  amount  of  income, 
attention  was  concentrated  on  families  having  an  income  of  from 
$500  to  $1000  a  year.  An  attempt  was  made  to  scatter  the 
visitors  over  the  various  parts  of  the  city,  and  among  the  most 
important  nationalities  represented,  but  beyond  this  the  selection 

28 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

of  particular  families  was  left  to  chance.  Visitors  naturally 
began,  where  possible,  with  families  with  which  they  happened 
to  be  acquainted  or  to  which  they  were  introduced  by  friends, 
but  in  nearly  half  of  the  cases  they  canvassed  the  tenement 
buildings  without  introduction,  until  they  found  a  family  whose 
composition  and  income  were  within  the  prescribed  limits,  and 
whose  members  were  willing  to  give  the  information  that  was 
wanted.  It  is  probable  that  the  families  most  able  to  give  such 
information  are  those  of  at  least  average  intelligence  and  thrift,  so 
that  the  returns  are  likely  to  err,  if  at  all,  on  the  side  of  showing 
better  management  and  a  higher  standard  than  that  which  pre- 
vails among  the  mass  of  families  having  corresponding  incomes. 

It  is,  of  course,  a  question  how  far  a  few  hundred  families, 
selected  thus  at  random,  are  representative  of  the  million  families 
of  New  York  City,  and  it  is  not  claimed  that  what  is  true  of  these 
families  is  true  of  all  families  similarly  situated.  On  the  other 
hand,  certain  physical  necessities  must  in  all  families  be  provided, 
and  must  be  paid  for,  in  each  locality,  at  a  fairly  uniform  scale 
of  prices.  When,  therefore,  the  smallness  of  the  income  limits 
expenditure  mainly  to  these  physical  necessities,  a  comparatively 
small  number  of  cases  will  be  sufficient  to  indicate  the  main  features 
in  the  apportionment  of  those  expenditures  which  are  dictated 
by  circumstances,  and  also  the  amount  of  the  variable  margin 
where  individual  choice  has  play.  On  the  other  hand,  the  num- 
ber is  large  enough,  so  that  averages  will  eliminate  many  of  the 
idiosyncrasies  of  individual  divergence  from  type,  although  when 
classified  into  sub-groups,  the  numbers  are  often  too  small  to  make 
the  average  and  percentage  of  any  real  significance. 

The  391  families  whose  budgets  are  discussed  in  the  text  of  this 
report  have  been  grouped  by  nationality,  location,  income,  and 
occupation,  as  may  be  seen  in  Tables  1-6  A  (pages  44-53). 

4.  The  Process  of  Gathering  the  Data. — It  was  hoped, 
when  the  schedule  was  first  circulated,  that  those  who  undertook 
to  fill  it  out  would  be  able  to  secure  the  keeping  of  cash  accounts, 
for  some  weeks  or  months,  by  the  families  visited.  The  ideal 
method  is,  of  course,  to  have  an  exact  account  kept  for  a  full  year, 
accompanied  by  an  inventory  of  the  family  possessions  at  the 
beginning  and  the  end  of  the  period.    This,  however,  was  im- 

2Q 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


possible  in  the  present  case,  since  a  preliminary  report  of  the 
results  of  the  inquiry  had  to  be  laid  before  the  State  Con- 
ference within  seven  months  of  the  printing  of  the  schedule. 
It  was  found  very  difficult  to  get  housewives  to  keep  accounts 
for  even  one  month.  In  a  few  cases  this  was  done,  however,  and 
these  reports  served  as  a  guide  in  reviewing  the  estimates  made 
without  account-books.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  it 
was  not  practicable  to  secure  account-books,  and  the  visitor  sat 
down  with  the  housewife,  and  ran  over  the  questions  of  the  sched- 
ule with  her,  getting  an  estimate  where  exact  figures  were  not 
available.  Often  the  mother  would  be  able  to  tell  with  a  good 
degree  of  accuracy  the  principal  items  of  her  budget  of  expendi- 
tures. Tactful  questioning  brought  out  matters  that  might  have 
been  overlooked,  and  in  case  of  manifest  inconsistencies  or  exag- 
gerations, a  roundabout  approach  resulted  in  a  revision  more 
nearly  correct.  All  this  required  time,  and  the  patience  of 
mother  and  visitor  was  sometimes  exhausted  before  the  end  was 
reached.  Several  visits  were  often  necessary,  although  in  a  few 
cases  the  visitor  was  refused  admittance  a  second  time.  On  the 
whole,  however,  visitors  were  well  received,  and  found  it  not  diffi- 
cult to  present  the  purpose  of  the  inquiry  in  such  a  way  that  the 
members  of  the  families  were  willing  to  contribute  their  life-story 
in  furtherance  of  the  end  in  view. 

Among  the  difficulties  encountered  was  a  tendency  in  some 
cases  to  exaggerate  in  statements  of  earnings  and  expenditures, 
partly  from  a  pardonable  pride  in  making  as  good  a  showing  as 
possible,  partly  from  the  method  of  estimating  food-expenditures 
on  the  basis  of  a  week's  outlay.  In  this  case  it  is  natural  to 
reckon  a  rather  more  generous  bill  of  fare  than  the  family  enjoys 
week  in  and  week  out,  representing  an  ideal  rather  than  the 
actual  state  of  the  table.  The  opposite  tendency  to  under- 
estimate appeared  in  a  few  cases,  prompted  apparently  by  a 
desire  to  make  out  as  bad  a  case  as  possible.  It  was  usually 
practicable  for  the  visitor,  forewarned,  to  guard  against  over- 
statements by  a  mild  species  of  cross-examination,  but  a  large 
number  of  schedules  had  to  be  rejected  because  of  this  fault. 

Other  difficulties  arose  in  the  failure  to  understand  the  mean- 
ing of  some  of  the  questions,  and  in  the  unwillingness  of  many  to 

30 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

answer  certain  intimate  inquiries,  such  as  the  amount  of  savings, 
or  of  expenditures  for  drink  away  from  home.  One  visitor  relates 
the  following  experience  regarding  the  item  of  expenditure  for 
"drinks  away  from  home":  "When  the  item  of  'liquors'  (page  7 
of  the  schedule)  was  touched  upon,  the  wife,  who  was  answering 
most  of  the  questions,  emphatically  exclaimed,  'Nothing.'  At 
this  the  father,  sitting  silently  and  letting  the  wife  do  the  talking, 
turned  his  head  outside  of  the  window  toward  the  street.  How- 
ever, when  I  touched  again  upon  the  items  of  beer  and  whisky, 
looking  straight  into  the  father's  face,  I  emphasized  the  words 
'drinks  away  from  home.'  Here  the  father  could  no  longer  re- 
strain himself,  and  said,  'About  10  to  15  glasses  of  beer  a  day 
and  a  glass  of  whisky.'  " 

Indifference  and  suspicion  were  often  encountered  by  the  visi- 
tors. Many  families  refused  to  be  interviewed.  In  some  cases 
the  woman  answered  the  questions  willingly,  but  when  the  visitor 
called  a  second  time  to  complete  the  report,  the  woman  stated 
that  her  husband  had  forbidden  her  to  give  the  facts.  On  one 
occasion  a  visitor,  while  interviewing  a  family,  was  attacked  by  an 
angry  landlord,  who  called  in  the  police  to  arrest  the  visitor  as  a 
thief.  The  visitor  was  able  to  explain  himself  to  the  officer,  but 
sought  his  next  case  in  another  street.  The  real  nature  of  the 
landlord's  apprehensions  may  be  surmised  from  the  fact  that  the 
scene  occurred  in  one  of  the  two  or  three  most  densely  over- 
crowded tenement-blocks  in  the  city,  and  that  the  visitor  found 
that  eleven  persons  were  accustomed  to  sleep  in  the  three  rooms  of 
the  apartment.  The  occurrence  of  the  so-called  "wave  of  crime," 
widely  exploited  by  the  newspapers  in  July  and  August  of  1907,  in- 
creased the  suspicion  with  which  the  visitors  were  met.  One  of  them, 
inquiring  his  way  of  a  child  on  the  landing,  was  assailed  with  violent 
language  by  the  child's  mother,  and  only  his  quickness  of  wit  saved 
him  from  a  mob  attack.  These  were  exceptional  instances,  how- 
ever, and  in  general  the  visitors  met  with  a  friendly  reception. 

It  cannot  be  claimed  that  every  account  is  exact  down  to  the 
last  cent,  or  even  the  last  dollar.  But  it  is  believed  that  the  re- 
ports present  an  approximation  to  the  facts  sufficiently  accurate  to 
give  a  correct  general  impression  of  the  way  in  which  the  income 
is  apportioned  in  families  like  those  under  consideration. 

3i 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


5.  The  Probable  Accuracy  of  the  Returns. — It  would  be 
absurd  to  claim  for  these  family  reports  the  exactness  of  a  bank 
statement.  But  although  only  approximations,  they  were  carefully 
prepared.  They  show  abundant  evidence  of  good  faith,  as  a  rule, 
on  the  part  of  visitors  and  the  members  of  the  families  themselves, 
and  the  majority  of  them  are  fairly  consistent,  whether  taken  each 
by  itself  or  compared  one  with  another.  Some  sources  of  error 
have  already  been  suggested.  In  addition  to  indifference  and  sus- 
piciousness on  the  part  of  those  interviewed,  ignorance,  misunder- 
standing of  the  meaning  of  questions  asked,  forgetfulness,  and 
impatience  gave,  rise  to  inaccuracies.  Enumerators  at  the  outset 
were  inexperienced;  they  and  those  whom  they  questioned  became 
weary  before  the  end  of  the  schedule  was  reached,  and  gave  less 
attention  to  some  of  its  later  pages.  No  doubt  the  total  income 
was  often  misstated  through  failure  to  make  an  exact  allowance 
for  days  of  unemployment.  The  calculation  of  the  food-expendi- 
tures for  the  year  on  the  basis  of  weekly  expenditures  opened  the 
way,  as  has  already  been  stated,  to  considerable  divergences 
from  the  exact  sum  of  the  expenditures  for  the  fifty-two  weeks. 

Some  of  the  dangers  could  be  foreseen  and  guarded  against 
by  the  visitors.  Some  of  these  inaccuracies  would  counter- 
balance one  another,  and  be  eliminated  by  the  process  of  averag- 
ing. Thus  the  tendency  to  exaggeration  would  be  offset  by  the 
tendency  to  concealment.  It  would  not  be  safe  to  suppose  that 
ail  errors  would  disappear  by  any  such  magic  process,  however, 
especially  with  no  more  cases  than  in  the  present  instance. 

The  errors  due  to  the  causes  mentioned  probably  entered  very 
slightly  into  statements  regarding  the  kinds  of  things  used,  but 
affected,  to  a  greater  degree,  statements  as  to  quantity  and  price 
of  what  was  bought.  A  comparison  of  the  estimates  as  to  food- 
expenditure  with  the  account-book  returns  from  a  few  families 
comparable  with  the  others,  suggests  the  tentative  estimate  of  10 
per  cent,  as  the  probable  margin  of  error  in  the  food-statements, 
the  error  most  frequently  occurring  in  the  form  of  over-statement. 
The  constantly  recurring  elements  in  the  food-budget  are  so  large 
a  proportion  of  the  whole,  and  the  seasonal  fluctuations  of  prices 
are  in  so  far  compensatory,  that  it  does  not  seem  unreasonable 
that  an  estimate,  prepared  as  were  those  of  the  schedules,  should 

32 


THE  METHOD  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 

come  within  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount  actually  expended. 
This  is  the  more  probable  if  the  schedule  as  a  whole  is  made  out 
with  due  regard  to  keeping  the  proper  balance  between  income 
and  outgo.  In  the  selection  of  the  schedules  for  tabulation,  none 
were  admitted  showing  an  excess  of  total  expenditure  over  total 
income  of  more  than  5  per  cent.,  save  in  cases  where  a  wider 
divergence  was  accounted  for  by  circumstances  explained  in  the 
body  of  the  schedule.  It  is  believed,  therefore,  that  a  tentative 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  living  may  be  deduced  from  the  data 
procured,  subject  to  correction  in  the  light  of  further  investiga- 
tions based  upon  a  larger  number  of  families.  The  experience 
gained  in  the  conduct  of  the  present  inquiry  may,  perhaps,  do 
something  toward  making  the  next  investigation  more  exact  and 
comprehensive. 

6.  Cost  of  the  Investigation. — The  following  statement 
shows  the  cost  of  the  investigation,  including  the  printing  of  the 
preliminary  report : 


Postage   $39-57 

Printing  and  Stationery   45 1.03 

Professional  services  of  food  expert   200.00 

Services  of  secretary  for  three  months   300.00 

Services  of  visiting  schedule-reporters   939. 1 7 

Clerical  service;  stenographers,  tabulators, 

etc   490.82 

Miscellaneous   59-94 


$2480.53 

To  this  amount  should  be  added  the  expenditures  for  clerical 
assistance  in  the  more  detailed  elaboration  of  the  data  for  the 
final  report,  making  the  total  cost  as  follows : 

Expenditures  enumerated  above  $2480.53 

Clerical  service,  etc.,  for  final  report   495. 1 7 

$2975.70 

The  whole  of  this  expense,  as  has  already  been  stated,  was  borne  by 
the  Russell  Sage  Foundation.  The  secretary  received  remuner- 
ation only  during  the  three  months  when  his  entire  time  was  given 
to  the  investigation. 

3  33 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Note. — The  following  letter,  referred  to  on  a  previous  page,  was 
received  by  the  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living,  with  a  schedule 
filled  out  by  the  writer: 

Gentlemen:  I  have  spoken  to  quite  a  number  of  men  in  our  trade  about  your 
family  report.  They  are  not  as  a  rule  interested  enough  to  ask  their  wives  how 
much  it  costs.  Their  usual  answer  is,  "All  I  can  earn."  Put  specific  questions  to 
them  and  they  could  not  make  a  good  guess.  Now  if  the  committee  find  this  to  be 
the  rule  I  would  suggest  that  something  be  gotten  up  where  a  woman  will  only  have 
to  mark  down  what  she  has  laid  out,  such  as  I  have  sketched  in  the  book,  and  that 
for  a  specified  time.    Women  as  a  rule  have  so  much  to  do  in  the  house,  particularly 


WAGON 


WEEK 


'BUTCHER 


0  0 

ARTICLES 

T 

3  C<n*x- 

25 

3 

/s 

8 
10 

GROCER 

where  there  are  five  children  that  they  can  give  no  time  to  family  reports.  I  am 
very  much  interested  in  this  as  I  think  it  is  something  every  man  should  know. 
Hand  up  $20  on  Saturday  night  week  after  week  and  then  come  home  and  see 
your  son  12  or  13  years  old,  after  coming  out  of  a  sham  battle,  waist  all  gone,  overalls 
about  gone,  undershirt  about  spent.  Grab  him,  bring  him  before  his  mother  and 
ask  her,  are  those  the  only  clothes  he  has.  And  at  this  time  of  the  year  par- 
ticularly (it's  vacation)  your  liable  to  be  answered  yes — then  you  begin  to  think  of 
your  20  a  week  and  ask  where  it  goes  and  your  liable  to  be  sued  for  divorce. 
Good  luck  to  the  committee,  keep  it  up,  its  what  working  men  and  women  want 
and  until  they  know  it  they  are  groping  in  the  dark. 

After  giving  your  report  all  the  consideration  possible  and  diving  into  accounts 
that  could  be  found  around  I  concluded  to  do  some  figuring.  The  enclosed  figures 
are  conservative  although  they  run  in  the  grand  total  a  few  hundred  dollars  more 
than  my  income.  But  when  it  is  understood  that  considerable  overtime  is  made 
in  our  trade  that  will  even  accounts.  I  have  endeavored  to  interest  several  men  in 
your  report  but  when  I  explained  how  essential  it  was  to  have  facts  and  not  guess 
work  they  refused  to  attempt  to  fill  one.  But  I  think  if  the  committee  will  adopt 
some  plan  where  the  future  accounts  could  be  easily  enumerated,  working  men  who 
want  to  know  how  much  it  costs  to  live  would  be  pleased  to  assist  their  wives  in 
keeping  those  correctly.  And  in  so  doing  would  be  educating  themselves  and  their 
children  along  with  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  one  of  the  most  essential  things  in  a 
home,  co-operation  in  economy  and  that  with  pleasure  instead  of  friction  and  many 
times  trouble  for  the  lack  of  knowledge  where  all  of  one's  money  goes  to. 

I  believe  that  if  the  committee  will  have  a  report  similar  to  this  one  sent  to  the 
men  in  the  city  that  work  for  a  living,  arranged  so  that  when  his  wife  runs  out  to  a 
wagon  in  the  street  and  spends  25  or  50  cents  that  she  will  only  have  to  go  to  the 
report  and  where  it  says  wagon  mark  what  she  spent  and  so  on  with  all  expendi- 
tures. For  example  a  number  of  pages  strung  together  like  this  sketch  or  some- 
thing equally  as  good.  As  to  the  past  no  one  can  or  will  attempt  to  fill  out  report 
accurate,  it  can  not  be  done,  and  be  correct,  look  to  future  not  to  the  Past. 

From  one  of  them, 

A.  J.  F. 

34 


PART  II 

Analysis  of  the  Returns  Received 


I.  Material  Used  and  Method  of  Treatment 


The  number  of  schedules  received  from  Greater  New  York  was 
642,  as  follows: 

From  volunteers   57 

From  trades  unions   34 

From  paid  agents   551 

Total   642 

Of  these,  251  were  rejected,  as  follows: 

Incomplete   14 

Palpably  inaccurate   107 

Of  abnormal  families   18 

Of  house-owning  families   6 

Of  families  having  less  than  4  or  more  than 

6  members   106 

Total   251 

There  remained,  accordingly,  reports  from  391  families,  each 
consisting  of  4,  5,  or  6  persons.  The  number  of  persons  in 
the  standard  family  being  assumed  as  5,  families  containing  1 
more  and  1  less  than  this  number  were  included  as  being  fairly 
comparable  with  families  of  5  persons  in  mass  groupings  where 
excess  and  deficiency  would  tend  to  offset  one  another.  In  cases 
where  this  method  appears  to  bias  the  results,  attention  will  be 
called  to  the  difficulty.  The  number  of  persons  to  a  family  is 
shown  in  Table  6  A*  (page  53). 

*  That  5  persons  per  family  is  a  sufficiently  large  allowance  appears  from  the 
following  tabulation  of  the  size  of  the  319,000  families,  comprising  1,402,897  per- 
sons, reported  as  living  in  tenements  in  New  York  in  1900,  as  given  by  the  New 
York  Tenement  House  Department.  (Tenement  House  Department  of  the  City  of 
New  York.    First  Report,  1902-1903,  vol.  ii,  pp.  152-153.) 

Families  of  1  comprise  4.01  per  cent,  of  all  families 


2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 
10 

over  10 


16.67 
18.65 
18.06 
15.10 
11.26 
7.42 

4-5i 
2.40 
1. 14 
0.78 

37 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


As  will  be  seen  from  the  tables  which  follow,  318  of  the  391 
families  report  incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100.  The  25  below 
$600  and  the  48  above  $1 100  are  included  for  the  sake  of  indicat- 
ing tendencies,  but  the  main  attention  is  given  to  the  318  families 
within  the  narrower  range.  Among  the  different  boroughs  (Table 
2,  page  45),  the  families  are  distributed  as  follows: 


Borough.                           Incomes  between  All 

$600  and  $1100.  Incomes. 

Manhattan  243  291 

Bronx                                         15  17 

Brooklyn                                     52  64 

Queens                                         8  9 


318  391 


Diagram  i. — Distribution  of  the  391  families  according  to  nationality. 

The  distribution  by  nationalities,  determined  according  to  the 
nationality  of  the  father  (his  birthplace,  save  in  case  of  colored 
persons),  is  as  follows: 

38 


MATERIAL  USED  AND  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 


Nationality. 

Incomes  between 

All 

$600  AND  $IIOO. 

Incomes. 

  67 

88 

  39 

46 

  24 

26 

Colored  

  28 

2Q 

y 

Bohemian  

  M 

>4 

  57 

78 

Austro-Hungarian,  etc.  J  -  ■  ■ 

  32 

39 

  57 

69 

Others  

2 

318  391 


*  The  nativity  of  the  fathers  of  the  natives  of  the  United  States  is  as  follows : 

Incomes  All 

$600  to  $1100.  Incomes. 

United  States  24  34 

Great  Britain                                                    4  5 

German  Empire  19  25 

Ireland  18  22 

Bohemia                                                            1  1 

Holland                                                          1  1 

67  88 

t  Including  the  following,  by  nativity  of  father: 

Incomes  All 

$600  to  $1100.  Incomes. 

Great  Britain                                                8  10 

German  Empire  24  29 

Holland                                                         1  1 

Norway  and  Sweden                                         5  5 

Switzerland                                                     1  1 

39  46 

J  Including  the  following,  by  nativity  of  father: 

Incomes  All 

$600  to  $1100.  Incomes. 

Austria  10  14 

Hungary  15  16 

Galicia                                                           6  7 

Roumania                                                       1  2 


32 

39 


39 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


By  incomes,  the  grouping  of  families  may  be  summarized  as 
follows : 

$400  to    $599   25 

600  to     699   72 

700  to     799   79 

800  to     899   73 

900  to     999   63 

1000  to    1099   31 

1 100  and  over   48 

The  occupations  represented  are  principally  those  of  the  less 
skilled  employments,  in  which  the  wage  is  from  $2.00  to  $3.00 


+*t  ill. 


1  1 


foce*uuTl  I  k  §   §    5  £ 


60 


¥0 


»  1 


*  * !  U  i  I  M 

\    \    S    \ .  N.   \  ^ 


Diagram  2. — Number  of  families  in  each  income-group.    (See  Table  i,  page  44.) 


a  day.  The  classification  employed  follows  that  of  the  Twelfth 
Census  of  the  United  States,  and  in  every  case  the  occupation 
specified  is  that  of  the  father.  Of  the  391  men  included  in  the 
tables,  laborers  (38),  teamsters  (30),  and  garment-workers  (66), 

40 


MATERIAL  USED  AND  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 

make  up  one-third.  The  following  table  shows  the  apportionment 
among  the  main  groups  of  the  Census  Bureau's  classification: 

Professional  service   6 

Domestic  and  personal  service   96 

Trade   47 

Transportation   53 

Manufactures  and  mechanical  trades  189 

39i 


In  the  tables  which  follow,  the  families  are  classified  by  occu- 
pation of  the  father  and  by  income.  In  Tables  3  and  6  (pages  46, 
49) ,  the  classification  is  on  the  basis  of  the  total  income  of  the  family ; 
in  Table  4  (page  47),  on  the  basis  of  the  earnings  of  the  father.  It 
must  not  be  supposed  that  the  range  of  annual  earnings  in  the  lower 
paid  occupations  is  as  great  as  in  the  range  of  incomes  of  the  families 
of  the  men  thus  employed,  because  it  is  especially  these  low  in- 
comes from  fathers'  earnings  that  need  to  be  supplemented  by  rent 
from  lodgers  and  the  earnings  of  mother  and  children. 

4i 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  number  of  persons  per  family  ranges  from  4  to  6;  142 
of  the  318  families  consist  of  5  persons,  80  of  4,  96  of  6.  The 
average  number  is  5,  and  the  average  for  each  income-group  is 
either  5,  4.9,  or  5.1.    (Table  6A,  page  53.) 

In  the  statistical  treatment  of  the  material  discussed,  the 
object  has  been,  first,  to  bring  out  as  fully  as  practicable  the 
facts,  considered  collectively;  and,  in  the  second  place,  to  compare 
the  results  in  such  a  way  as  to  find  out,  if  possible,  on  what  income 
a  family  may  meet  the  demands  of  a  normal  standard.  With  these 
ends  in  view,  general  averages  of  the  returns  for  all  families 
have  been  for  the  most  part  avoided,  and  averages  and  per- 
centages calculated  with  reference  to  each  income-group  and 
nationality  separately.  Where  differences  of  locality  were  im- 
portant in  their  influence  upon  expenditures,  as  in  the  matter 
of  rent,  the  figures  are  presented  for  Manhattan  apart  from  those 
for  the  other  boroughs  of  New  York.  This  method  brings  to- 
gether the  data  that  are  most  completely  comparable.  It  is 
subject  to  the  objection  that  the  number  of  cases  in  any  one 
group  is  so  small  that  the  main  advantage  of  the  average — the 
elimination  of  individual  departures  from  type — is  lost.  To  meet 
this  difficulty,  comparisons  and  averages  have  been  regularly  made 
by  combining  families  of  all  nationalities  in  each  income-group, 
and  families  of  all  incomes  within  each  nationality-group.  This 
method  ought  to  bring  out  at  least  the  principal  variations  due 
primarily  to  difference  of  income  and  those  due  primarily  to  differ- 
ence of  nationality.  For  certain  purposes  it  has  seemed  safe  to  com- 
bine adjacent  income-groups;  i.  e.,  to  compare  all  cases  in  income- 
groups  between  $600  and  $800  with  all  cases  in  income-groups 
between  $900  and  $1 100.  Also,  for  many  purposes,  the  families 
of  American,  Teutonic  and  Irish  parentage  may  advantageously 
be  combined  for  the  purpose  of  contrasting  them  with  families 
of  the  stocks  predominating  in  recent  immigration — the  Russian, 
Austro-Hungarian,  and  Italian. 

When  the  average  has  been  employed  it  has  in  every  case  been 
obtained  by  dividing  the  sum  of  the  items  by  the  number  of  cases. 
This  amounts,  in  cases  where  combination  is  made  of  different 
groups  (e.  g.,  of  the  291  Manhattan  cases  and  the  100  non-Man- 
hattan cases),  to  adding  together  all  the  items  in  all  groups  and 

42 


MATERIAL  USED  AND  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 


dividing  the  sum  by  the  total  number  of  cases  (by  391  in  the  in- 
stance cited).  In  other  words,  in  all  such  cases  the  weighted 
average  has  been  applied. 

More  useful  than  the  average,  sometimes,  has  been  found  the 
grouping  of  items  into  classes,  and  the  enumeration  of  the  number 
of  cases  falling  in  each  class;  e.  g.,  the  number  of  families  paying 
less  than  $10  monthly  rent  and  the  number  paying  over  $15. 
This  method  has  been  applied  to  the  study  of  wages  in  Professor 
Dewey's  special  report  in  the  Twelfth  Census.  For  the  modest 
purpose  of  the  present  report  it  has  not  been  thought  necessary 
to  calculate  the  cumulative  percentage  as  Professor  Dewey  has 
done,  but  the  ordinary  percentage  calculations  have  been  made. 
Again,  it  should  be  remembered  that  all  percentages  diminish  in 
significance  as  the  number  of  cases  grows  small.  For  this  reason, 
the  number  of  cases  should  always  be  kept  in  mind,  and  there- 
fore these  numbers,  wherever  practicable,  are  printed  in  con- 
nection with  the  percentages. 


43 


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25 

5? 


44 


Total  Number 
of  Families. 

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52 


TABLE  6A— NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  PER  FAMILY.— BY  INCOME 
AND  NATIONALITY. 


$600  to  $699 

$700  to 

$799 

$800  to  $899 

o  jj 

Number 

of 

"Si? 

Number  of 

Number  of 

£  8 

Families  w 

ith: 

Families  with: 

Families  with: 

IN  ATIONALITY. 

11 

•s  § 

Sfa 

Sfa 

Sfa 

£  ft 

£ft 

cri 

la 

»-<  c! 

n 

£g 

to 

*  § 

3  g 

.  2 

>  o 

en 
*§ 

2  0 

en 

£g 

CO 

11 

O  « 

o  to 

fa  S 

fag 

'(n  fi 
u 

>  u 

£§ 

._,  CO 

h  S3 

£g 

O  CO 

fa  5 

K  g 

5  0) 
«<Ph 

Ph 

PM 

fa 

<Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

<Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

United  States . . 

5-o 

3 

6 

2 

5-3 

I 

13 

5 

5-o 

4 

5 

4 

4-7 

i 

3 

5-o 

3 

i 

3 

5-i 

3 

2 

4 

Irish  

6.o 

4 

5-3 

5 

2 

4.9 

2 

4 

I 

Colored  

5-4 

7 

4 

5-5 

3 

3 

5-2 

1 

4 

3 

Bohemian  

4-5 

T 

3 

6.o 

3 

5-7 

1 

2 

5-i 

3 

8 

5 

5-i 

3 

5 

6 

5-4 

2 

2 

8 

Austrian,  etc. . . 

4-3 

3 

2 

i 

4-8 

3 

4 

2 

5-o 

3 

4 

2 

Italian  

4.6 

ii 

3 

2 

4.6 

7 

6 

I 

4-5 

8 

2 

2 

Total  

4-9 

22 

32 

18 

5-i 

i7 

37 

25 

5-o 

23 

24 

26 

$900  to  $999 

$1000  to 

$1099 

Total. 

Number 

of 

"o,>> 

Nu 

mber  of 

Number 

of 

HI 

Families  with: 

Families  with : 

Families  w 

ith: 

Nationality. 

Sfa3 

11 

Sfa 

P 

3.  ^ 

1* 

to" 

0? 

*t 

U  CO 

£f  £ 

to 

3g 

0  C 

.*§ 

3  § 

S?  5 

.*! 

U  CO 

1- 

CO 

2g 

CO 

ji  9 

2  0 

§  fi 
>  0 

O  CO 

fa  S3 

>  O 

to 

HH  CJ 

W  12 
CD 

|i 

>  cu 

O  to 

fa  S3 

ersc 

w  fi 

u 

E| 

>  <u 

O  to 
fa  0 

fag 

W  fi 

<Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

<Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

<Ph 

Ph 

Ph 

United  States . . 

S-2 

2 

8 

6 

5-4 

I 

3 

4 

5-2 

II 

35 

21 

Teutonic  

5-i 

3 

5 

3 

5-o 

I 

S 

2 

5-o 

II 

16 

12 

Irish  

5-4 

3 

2 

5-o 

1 

5-3 

2 

13 

9 

Colored  

5-5 

1 

1 

5-o 

1 

5-4 

I 

16 

II 

Bohemian  

5-2 

3 

1 

5-3 

I 

7 

6 

Russian  

5-o 

3 

3 

3 

4.8 

2 

3 

1 

5-i 

13 

21 

23 

Austrian,  etc. . . 

4.9 

2 

4 

1 

6.0 

1 

4-8 

II 

14 

7 

5-i 

1 

6 

2 

4-5 

3 

3 

4-6 

30 

20 

7 

Total  

5-i 

11 

33 

19 

5-o 

7 

16 

8 

5.o 

80 

142 

96 

$400  to  599  ;  av.,5.2  persons  per  fly;  5  families  of  4  persons;  11  of  5;  9  of  6 
$1100  and  over;  "  5.0      "  "   16      "  "        18  "     14  " 


53 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


II.  Sources  of  Income 

An  examination  of  the  sources  of  income  of  the  families  included 
in  this  report  shows  that,  while  the  earnings  of  the  father  are  the 
main  dependence,  the  importance  of  additions  from  the  earnings 
of  others,  and  from  lodgers,  increases  with  the  higher  incomes. 

Tables  7  to  14  (pages  61-67)  show  the  sources  of  income  for  the 
families  included  in  the  tabulations  of  the  report.  Two  methods 
of  analyzing  the  sources  of  income  are  followed  in  the  tables. 
The  first  method  proceeds  on  the  basis  of  the  average  amount  in 
dollars  and  cents  received  from  each  source,  and  the  percentage 
of  the  average  total  income  for  each  group  of  families,  by  income 
and  nationality,  which  the  average  from  each  source  represents. 
The  other  method  proceeds  by  counting  in  each  group  the  number 
of  families  that  receive  income  from  each  source,  and  calculating 
the  corresponding  percentage  of  the  total  number  of  families  in 
each  group. 


j     1     1     1  f 

Diagram  4. — Total  number  of  families,  and  number  supported  entirely  by  the 
father,  in  the  principal  income-groups. 

54 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


The  most  significant  item  is  the  earnings  of  the  father.  These 
constitute  97  per  cent,  of  the  whole  income  for  the  families  with 
incomes  of  between  $400  and  $500,  94  per  cent,  for  families  in 
the  next  two  groups  ($500  to  $599  and  $600  to  $699),  89  per  cent, 
for  families  with  a  total  income  of  from  $700  to  $800,  84  per 
cent,  for  families  in  the  $800  group,  85  per  cent,  for  the  $900 
families,  82  per  cent,  for  the  $1000  group.  If  we  count  the 
families  supported  wholly  by  the  father's  earnings  in  each  income- 
group  the  same  decrease  in  the  higher  income-groups  appears, 
while  the  fact  is  also  brought  out  that  in  a  large  number  of  fam- 
ilies the  additions  to  the  income  from  sources  outside  the  main 
wages  form  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole.  The  number  and 
percentage  of  families  supported  entirely  by  the  father  in  the 
successive  income-groups  are  as  follows: 


Families  Supported 

Total  Number  Entirely  by  Father: 

Income.               of  Families.  Number.  Per  Cent. 

$600  to  $699              72              46  63 . 9 

700  to  799             79             40  50 .  b 

800  to  899             73             22  30 . 1 

900  to  999             63             33  54.0 

1000  to  1099  ..... .   31               8  25.8 


318  149  46.8 

That  is  to  say,  less  than  half  of  these  318  families  are  able  or 
willing  to  get  along  with  what  the  father's  wages  bring  in.  The 
table  of  averages  shows  that  it  must  be,  for  the  most  part,  a  small 
amount  that  is  added  in  the  lower  income-grades.  The  fact  that 
the  proportion  of  families  not  supported  by  father  alone,  and  the 
average  amount  of  the  additions  from  other  sources  both  increase 
in  the  higher  income-groups,  shows  that,  for  the  particular  fam- 
ilies that  our  visitors  have  reached,  an  income  of  above  $700  or 
$800  is  obtainable  as  a  rule  only  by  taking  lodgers  or  by 
putting  mother  and  children  to  work.  It  will  be  noticed  from 
Table  9  (page  63)  that  the  average  earnings  of  the  father  do  not 
reach  $900  in  any  of  the  income-groups  until  a  total  income  of 
$  1 100  to  $1200  is  reached. 

A  glance  at  the  tables  of  occupations  (pages  44-52)  explains  why 

55 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


the  father's  earnings  are  so  inadequate.  The  occupations  pre- 
dominating (e.  g.,  laborers,  garment-workers,  teamsters)  are 
those  in  which  it  is  seldom  possible  for  the  father  to  earn  more 
than  from  $600  to  $800  a  year.  If  his  family  is  to  enjoy  comforts 
beyond  what  this  sum  will  provide,  someone  else  must  earn,  or  a 
lodger  or  two  be  taken  in,  to  help  out  in  the  rent.    It  will  be 


f7 

7* 

6ot>-\ 

7? 

7* 

7^0 - 

cz 

21 

/? 

//aoA 

V 

/*> 

7 

/2<ro~\ 

/ 

/¥&>4 

Diagram  5. — Percentage  of  income  from  each  source  in  each  income-group. 


found,  further,  as  comparisons  are  made  at  specific  points,  that 
the  families  with  composite  income  do  not  live  as  well,  on  the 
same  amount,  as  do  the  families  supported  entirely  by  the  father. 

The  principal  resources  for  additions  to  what  the  father  earns 
are  the  earnings  of  wife  and  children,  and  the  income  from  lodgers. 
In  Table  1 1  (page  64)  will  be  found  the  data  regarding  the  number 
of  families  dependent  on  these  means  of  support,  and  in  Tables  7-9 

0 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


(pages  61-63)  the  average  amount  and  per  cent,  of  average  total 
income  yielded  by  these  sources.  In  86  of  the  318  families  with 
incomes  between  §600  and  $1 100,  or  27  per  cent.,  there  are  wage- 
earners  besides  the  father;  93  families,  or  29  per  cent.,  have  lodgers. 
By  incomes,  the  proportion  of  other  wage-earners  is  least  in  the  §600 
income-group  (12.5  per  cent.) ,  and  greatest  in  the  $800  group  (4 1  per 
cent.).  It  is  notably  high,  however,  in  the  $900  and  $1000  groups, 
the  percentage  for  these  groups  combined  being  34,  as  compared 
with  16  per  cent,  for  the  combined  $600  and  $700  groups.  The 
average  earnings  of  these  other  members  of  the  family  increase  like- 
wise, with  increase  of  income,  being  $  14.62,  or  2.3  per  cent.,  for 
the  $600  families;  $81.93,  or  9.7  per  cent.,  for  the  $800  group, 
and  $121.36,  or  11.6  per  cent.,  for  the  $1000  group. 

Who  these  other  wage-earners  are  may  be  seen  in  Tables  13-14 
(pages  66-67).  In  tne  3*8  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and 
$1 100  there  are  reported  103  wage-earners,  besides  the  father,  be- 
longing to  86  different  families.  Sixteen  families  have  2  supple- 
mentary wage-earners;  1  family  (Bohemian)  reports  3.  Of  these 
103  persons,  58  are  the  mothers.  Twenty-seven  of  these  women 
receive  pay  for  janitor  service,  in  many  cases  in  the  tenement 
buildings  in  which  they  live.  In  the  majority  of  cases  where  the 
woman  is  janitress  of  a  tenement  building  she  is  given  in  payment 
the  use  of  an  apartment  rent  free.  In  31  cases  the  woman  earns 
money  in  some  other  way.  The  cases  where  the  mother  is  a 
wage-earner  occur  most  frequently  in  the  $800  income-group, 
where  24  of  the  58  cases  occur.  No  more  than  12  are  found  in 
any  other  income-group. 

Forty-five  children  are  reported  at  work  for  wages,  20  boys 
and  25  girls.  The  children  are  reported  more  frequently  in  the 
higher  income-groups  than  in  the  lower,  as  will  be  seen  from  the 
following  table: 

Total  Number 
Number  of  with  Children 


Income.                                Families.  Earning  Wages 

?6oo  to  $699  72  3 

700  to  799  79  7 

800  to  899  75  9 

900  to  999  63  15 

1000  to  1099  31  11 

1 100  and  over   48  15 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


These  figures,  taken  in  connection  with  the  occupations  most 
largely  represented,  would  corroborate  the  impression  that,  where 
the  father's  earnings  are  low,  say  under  $800,  the  children  have 
to  go  to  work  as  soon  as  the  law  allows, — sometimes  earlier, — if 
the  standard  of  living  is  not  to  be  lowered  in  the  effort  to  make 
the  same  income  meet  the  wants  of  children  who,  as  they  grow, 
must  have  continually  more  to  eat  and  to  wear. 

The  different  nationalities  show  some  differences  in  regard  to  the 
supplementary  wage-earners.  Among  the  Bohemians  the  largest 
proportion  of  mothers  at  work  is  reported;  viz.,  in  7  out  of  14 
families.  The  Russians  report  only  4  women  as  wage-earners  out 
of  57  families,  and  these  are  all  janitresses.  The  women  are  re- 
ported as  wage-earners  in  1  family  out  of  7  among  the  Americans, 
in  1  out  of  6  among  the  Irish,  in  1  out  of  4  among  the  Teutonic 
families,  in  1  out  of  5  families  among  the  Austrians,  and  in  1  out 
of  8  among  the  Italians. 

Families  with  more  than  one  supplementary  wage-earner  are 
more  frequent  among  the  families  in  our  second  nationality-group, 
12  out  of  the  16  cases  being  found  among  the  Bohemians,  Russians, 
Austrians  and  Italians.  In  regard  to  children  at  work  there  is 
no  apparent  difference  among  the  different  nationalities,  the 
number  reported  at  work  bearing,  practically,  the  same  ratio 
to  the  total  number  of  families  in  the  case  of  each  nationality. 

The  families  dependent  on  lodgers  for  part  of  their  support  are 
more  evenly  distributed  among  the  income-groups  than  are  the 
families  with  supplementary  wage-earners.  Twenty-four  per 
cent,  of  the  $600  families  report  lodgers,  and  39  per  cent,  of 
the  1 1 000  families,  but  the  fluctuations  in  the  returns  for  the  in- 
termediate groups  do  not  show  any  regular  increase.  The  number 
reporting  lodgers  in  the  $600  and  $700  groups  combined  is  28.5 
per  cent,  of  the  whole;  in  the  $900  and  $1000  groups  it  is  26.6 
per  cent,  of  the  whole.  The  amount  contributed  by  lodgers 
averages  $18.26  for  the  $600  families  (2.8  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
income),  and  $60.94  (5.8  per  cent.)  for  the  $1000  families. 
The  small  average  for  the  lower  income-group  is  due  in  part  to 
the  small  number  of  families  reporting  income  from  lodgers. 
The  average  amount  received  by  each  of  the  17  families  in  this 
group  that  report  lodgers  is  $77.33,  or  12  per  cent,  of  the  average 

58 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


total  income  of  the  families  in  this  group.  The  average  per 
family  taking  lodgers  among  the  $1000  families  is  $157.43,  or  15 
per  cent,  of  the  average  total  income  of  this  group.  The  rela- 
tion between  lodgers  and  over-crowding  is  discussed  in  another 
connection  (page  83). 

An  examination  of  Tables  10  and  12  (pages  63  and  65)  shows 
that,  so  far  as  our  families  are  concerned,  those  resident  in  Brook- 
lyn depend  less  upon  lodgers  for  supplementary  income  than 
those  in  Manhattan.  All  of  the  families  in  the  Bronx  that  report 
lodgers  are  in  two  income-groups  (§800  to  $899  and  $1100  to 
$1 199),  and  in  these  cases  the  lodgers  pay  as  large  a  share  of  the 
total  income  as  in  Manhattan.  The  number  of  families  in  the 
Bronx  is  altogether  too  small,  however,  to  warrant  any  general  con- 
clusions, and  the  same  observation  holds  in  less  degree  regarding  the 
52  Brooklyn  families,  as  compared  with  the  243  in  Manhattan. 

A  comparison  of  the  different  nationalities  with  reference  to 
the  sources  of  income  shows  that  the  greatest  dependence  on  other 
resources  than  the  father's  wages  is  found  among  the  Bohemians, 
Austrians  and  Russians.  If  to  these  there  be  added  the  Italians, 
making  160  families,  we  find  that  only  60  families,  or  37.5  per 
cent.,  report  no  additional  sources  of  income.  Among  the  158 
families  of  the  other  four  nationalities  (Americans,  Teutonic 
peoples,  Irish,  colored),  89,  or  56.3  per  cent.,  are  supported  by 
the  father  alone.  The  Italians,  however,  with  51  per  cent,  of 
families  supported  entirely  by  the  father,  rank  above  the  colored, 
with  43  per  cent.  (Table  1 1,  page  64). 

As  to  the  secondary  sources  of  income,  dependence  on  the  earn- 
ings of  others  than  the  father  is  found  to  be  more  general  among 
all  nationalities  than  is  reliance  upon  lodgers.  The  proportion 
with  women  or  children  at  work  varies  from  16  per  cent,  among 
the  Russians  to  64  per  cent,  among  the  Bohemians.  Dividing  the 
families  into  two  groups  as  before,  according  to  nationality,  45,  or 
28.5  per  cent.,  of  the  families  in  the  first  group  have  other  wage- 
earners  than  the  father,  as  compared  with  41,  or  25.6  per  cent., 
of  the  families  in  the  second  group.  As  regards  lodgers,  how- 
ever, only  26  families,  or  16.5  per  cent.,  of  the  first  group  report 
income  from  this  source,  while  67  families,  or  41.9  per  cent, 
of  the  second  group,  report  taking  lodgers. 

59 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  "income  from  other  sources"  than  those  already  discussed, 
for  which  space  is  assigned  in  the  tables,  includes  gifts  of  money, 
loans  and  other  occasional  windfalls.  This  is  so  inconsiderable 
a  factor,  however,  amounting  to  from  0.5  to  0.9  per  cent,  in  the 
averages  of  the  income-groups,  that  further  mention  of  it  seems 
not  to  be  necessary. 

In  regard  to  the  whole  subject  of  the  proportion  between  fam- 
ilies with  and  without  income  from  supplementary  sources,  a 
concluding  word  may  be  in  place.  It  is  not  claimed  that  three- 
fifths  of  all  the  families  in  New  York  that  spend  from  $800  to 
$1 100  a  year  are  obliged  to  eke  out  the  earnings  of  the  father  by 
taking  lodgers  or  sending  mother  and  children  out  to  work.  The 
fact  here  shown  is  only  that  three-fifths  of  the  167  families  selected 
at  random  within  the  range  of  incomes  mentioned  did  thus  fall 
back  on  supplementary  sources  of  income.  But  this  fact,  taken 
in  connection  with  the  reports  of  what  that  income  was  spent 
for,  raises  the  question  whether  an  income  of  less  than  $800  is 
sufficient  to  maintain  a  family  of  five  up  to  the  time  when  the 
children  are  really  old  enough  to  be  set  to  work. 


60 


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62 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


TABLE  9.— SOURCES  OF  INCOME.    AVERAGES  AND  PERCENTAGES. 

—BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

No. 

OF 

Fam- 
ilies. 

Total 
Income. 

Earnings  of 
Father. 

Earnings  of 
Others. 

From 
Lodgers. 

From  Other 
Sources. 

Amount. 

Per  Cent. 

Amount. 

Per  Cent. 

Amount. 

Per  Cent. 

Amount. 

Per  Cent. 

$400-  499  

8 

$452.38 

$437-91 

96.8 

$9.97 

2.2 

$4-50 

1.0 

$500-  599  

17 

544-U 

509.41 

93-6 

17-47 

3-2 

17-23 

3-2 

$5-oo 

72 

650.17 

611.39 

94.0 

14.62 

2-3 

18.26 

2.8 

0.9 

$700-  799  

79 

748.33 

670.38 

89-5 

35-96 

4.8 

38.63 

5-2 

'  3-86 

0.5 

$800-  899  

73 

846.26 

712.74 

84.2 

8i.93 

9-7 

46.55 

5-5 

5 -°4 

0.6 

$000-  999  

63 

942.03 

881.00 

85.0 

107. 11 

11.4 

29.49 

3-i 

4.62 

0.5 

31 

1044.48 

852.50 

81.7 

121.36 

11.6 

60.94 

5-8 

9.68 

0.9 

18 

1137-42 

1003.95 

88.3 

69.69 

6.1 

48.50 

4-3 

15-28 

i-3 

8 

1256.25 

1012.75 

80.6 

I39-50 

11. 1 

104.00 

8-3 

$1300-1399  

8 

1344-12 

1028.25 

76.5 

93.12 

7.0 

222.75 

i6.S 

1425.00 

1300.00 

91.2 

8.80 

125.00 

6 

1518.47 

1236.67 

81.4 

120.00 

7-9 

93-47 

6.2 

68.33 

4-5 

TABLE  10.— SOURCES^OF  INCOME.   PERCENTAGES.— BY  BOROUGH 

AND  INCOME. 


Earnings  of  Father, 
Per  Cent. 

Earnings  of 
Others, 
Per  Cent. 

From  Lodgers, 
Per  Cent. 

From  Other 
Sources, 
Per  Cent. 

;  Income. 

Man- 
hattan. 

Bronx. 

rooklyn 

Man- 
hattan. 

Bronx. 

rooklyn 

Man- 
hattan. 

Bronx. 

rooklyn 

Man- 
hattan. 

Bronx. 

rooklyn 

m 

pq 

m 

$400-  499 . . 

93-8 

100.0 

4-3 

1.9 

$500-  599 . . 

91.8 

98.1 

3-8 

1.9 

4.4 

$600-  699  . . 

92.2 

97-7 

99-5 

2.9 

2-3 

3-7 

0.5 

1.2 

$700-  799 . . 

87.9 

100.0 

95-6 

5-8 

1.0 

5-8 

2.9 

0.5 

0.5 

$800-  899  . . 

82.1 

00. 1 

96.3 

11. 1 

4.9 

i-3 

.6.1 

5-o 

2.4 

0.7 

$900-  999  . . 

81.0 

100.0 

91.2 

14.4 

6.7 

3-9 

2.1 

0.7 

$1000-1099  . . 

80.8 

100.0 

79.1 

12.8 

8-3 

5-3 

12.6 

1.1 

$1100-1199  •  - 

82.7 

82.2 

97-5 

8.7 

8.9 

1.9 

6.0 

8.9 

0.6 

2.6 

$1200-1299 . . 

84.0 

57-i 

8.3 

30.6 

7-7 

12.3 

$1300-1399 . . 

693 

82.4 

11. 1 

19.6 

17.6 

$1500-1599 .. 

77-7 

100.0 

9-5 

7-4 

i.; 

63 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  11.— SOURCES  OF  INCOME.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  RE- 
PORTING INCOME  FROM  GIVEN  SOURCES.— 
BY  INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

Nationality. 

Number  o 
Families. 

Earnings  0 
Father 
Only. 

Earnings 
of  Others 

From 
Lodgers. 

Number  0 
Families. 

Earnings 
of  Fathei 
Only. 

Earnings 
of  Others. 

From 
Lodgers. 

Number  0 
Families. 

Earnings  0 
Father 
Only. 

Earnings 
of  Others. 

From 
Lodgers. 

United  States  

II 

IO 

I 

19 

II 

2 

5 

13 

7 

4 

3 

Teutonic  

4 

2 

2 

7 

2 

3 

3 

9 

5 

2 

■  1 

Irish  

4 

4 

7 

5 

I 

7 

3 

3 

1 

■  ii 

9 

I 

I 

6 

3 

3 

1 

8 

6 

3 

Bohemian  

4 

1 

I 

2 

3 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

Russian  

16 

11 

I 

5 

14 

6 

8 

12 

2 

4 

8 

6 

1 

5 

9 

2 

3 

5 

9 

1 

3 

5 

16 

8 

3 

4 

14 

9 

1 

3 

12 

4 

5 

4 

Total  

72 

46 

9 

17 

79 

40 

15 

26 

73 

22 

30 

25 

$900  to  $999. 

$1000  to  $1099. 

Total. 

i 

to 

H 

0 

Earnings  of 
Father  Only. 

Earnings  of 
Others. 

From 
Lodgers. 

as 

•8 

i-.Si 

-a 

Nationality. 

Numb 
Fami 

Earnic 
Father 

Earnin 
Oth( 

From  L( 

Numb 
Fami 

Earnir 
Father 

Eamin 

From  Lo 

Numb< 
Famil 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

United  States 

16 

9 

5 

2 

8 

3 

2 

2 

67 

40 

61.2 

14 

20.9 

12 

17.9 

Teutonic  

11 

8 

3 

8 

3 

3 

2 

39 

20 

51.2 

13 

33-3 

6 

15-4 

5 

5 

1 

1 

24 

17 

70.8 

5 

20.8 

I 

4.1 

2 

2 

I 

1 

1 

I 

28 

12 

42.9 

13 

46.4 

7 

25.O 

Bohemian  . . . 

4 

4 

14 

3 

21.4 

9 

64.1 

3 

21.4 

Russian  

9 

2 

2 

6 

6 

1 

6 

57 

21 

36.9 

9 

i5-8 

33 

57-9 

Austrian,  etc. 

7 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

32 

7 

21.9 

10 

34-4 

17 

53-i 

9 

6 

1 

2 

6 

2 

3 

1 

57 

29 

50.8 

13 

22.8 

14 

24-5 

Total  

63 

33 

20 

13 

3i 

8 

12 

12 

3i8 

149 

46.8 

86 

27.0 

93 

29.2 

64 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


TABLE  12.— SOURCES  OF  INCOME.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  RE- 
PORTING INCOME  FROM  LODGERS:  MANHATTAN.— BY 
INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 


o 

«  . 

Families  Receiving  Income  from  Lodgers: 
Manhattan. 

Nationality. 

Total  Numb: 
Familie 

S600 

to 
S699 

S700 

to 
S799 

$800 

to 
$899 

$900 

to 
$999 

$1000 

to 
$1099 

Total. 

Per 
Cent, 
of  All 
Fam- 
ilies. 

44 
27 

17 

28 

5 

3 

2 

I 

11 

25.0 
22.2 

3 

1 

2 

6 

1 

1 

5-8 
25.0 
21.4 

79-4 
53-3 
24.5 

I 

1 

3 

1 

I 

7 

14 
34 
3° 
49 

2 

1 

3 

4 

7 

6 

5 

5 

27 
16 

5 

4 

5 

2 

Italian  

3 

3 

3 

2 

1 

12 

Total  

*5 
52 

24 
63 

22 

12 

10 

83 
243 

Total  number  of  families  

58 

45 

25 

Per  cent,  with  lodgers  

28.8 

38.1 

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66 


SOURCES  OF  INCOME 


TABLE  14.— SOURCES  OF  INCOME.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  RE- 
PORTING WAGE-EARNERS  OTHER  THAN  FATHER.— BY 
INCOME. 


Income. 


Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 


Num- 
ber 

WITH 

Other 
Wage- 
earn- 
ers. 


Wage-earner  Besides  Father. 


Mother. 


Jani- 


Other. 


Boys. 


$400  to  S499. 

$500  to  $599 

$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

$900  to  $999. 
$1000  to  $1099. 
$1100  to  $1199. 
$1200  to  $1299. 
$1300  to  $1399. 
$1400  and  over 

To.al  

$400  to  $599. 
$600  to  $799. 
$800  to  $899. 
$900  to  $1099. 
$1100  and  over 


17 
72 

79 


2 
3 
9 


73  29 


63 
3i 
18 


14 


391 

25 
151 

73 
94 
48 


12 
6 
3 
3 
4 


107 
5 

24 
29 
33 
16 


-9 


40 

5 
10 
11 
10 

4 


32 

4 
5 

11 
12 


67 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


III.  Objects  of  Expenditure 

A.  Apportionment  (Averages  and  Percentages)  Between  Different 
Heads  of  Expenditure 

The  relative  expenditure  for  different  purposes  is  shown  in 
Tables  15  and  16  (pages  70-74).  The  percentages  show  which  are 
the  elastic  elements.  Housing  demands  a  decreasing  proportion 
of  income  as  income  increases;  food  remains  nearly  constant; 
clothing  claims  a  larger  proportion  of  the  higher  incomes  than  of 
the  lower.  The  expenditures  for  sundries,  including  furnishings, 
society  and  church  dues,  amusements  and  miscellanies,  show  a 
rapid  increase  in  percentage  with  increasing  income.  Further 


Diagram  6. — Total  average  expenditure  for  each  income  group,  and  average 
amounts  expended  for  various  purposes. 

The  items  are  arranged  in  each  column  in  the  following  order,  beginning  at 
the  bottom:  rent;  car-fare;  fuel  and  light;  food;  clothing;  insurance;  health;  sun- 
dries. 

68 


OBJECTS  OF  EXPENDITURE 


Diagram  7. — Percentage  of  expenditure  for  each  item.  The  items  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  same  order  as  in  Diagram  6.  Beginning  at  the  left:  rent;  car-fare; 
fuel  and  light;  food;  clothing;  insurance;  health;  sundries. 


discussion  of  the  variations  of  amount  and  percentage  of  the  ex- 
penditures under  the  different  heads  for  the  several  income-groups 
and  nationalities  will  be  taken  up  in  the  consideration  of  the 
successive  items.  The  heading  "Units,  Average"  in  the  fourth 
column  (Table  15)  refers  to  the  food-requirements  of  the  families, 
stated  in  multiples  of  the  requirement  of  an  adult  man  as  a  unit. 
The  method  of  reckoning  these  equivalents  is  described  in  another 
connection,  on  page  125. 


69 


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74 


HOUSING 


B.  Discussion  of  Separate  Heads  of  Expenditure, 
i.  HOUSING. 

1.  Rent  as  a  Factor  in  the  Budget. — As  the  table  of  aver- 
ages shows  (Table  15,  pages  70-72),  the  amount  paid  for  rent  in- 
creases with  increase  of  income,  while  the  percentage  of  all  expen- 
ditures paid  for  rent  tends  to  diminish  as  the  income  increases. 
K wenty-seven  per  cent,  of  all  expenditures  is  paid  for  housing,  on 
/the  average,  by  the  8  families  with  incomes  between  $400  and 
/  $500,  and  26  per  cent,  by  the  17  families  with  incomes  between 

$500  and  $600.  The  63  families  with  incomes  between  $900 
and  $1000  average  only  19  per  cent.,  although  paying  $171  on 
an  average,  as  compared  with  $124,  the  average  of  the  rent  of 
families  in  the  $400  income-group. 

A  study  of  the  rent  payments  (Tables  20  and  21,  page  88) 
shows  the  same  tendency.    Of  the  243  Manhattan  families  with 
incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100,  74  families,  or  30  per  cent.,  pay 
from  $12 to  $14  a  month  for  rent;  and  157  families,  or  60  per  cent., 
pay  1 14  and  under.    But  in  the  $600  income-group  73  per  cent, 
of  the  families  pay  not  more  than  $14;  in  the  $700  group,  67  per 
cent.;  in  the  $800  group,  62  per  cent.;  while  in  the  $900  group, 
49  per  cent.,  and  in  the  $1000  group,  36  per  cent,  are  in  this 
I  category.    Or,  drawing  the  line  in  another  way,  as  in  Table  23, 
I  the  percentage  of  families  in  the  different  income-groups  spending 
J  $14  or  more  monthly  for  rent  is: 

$600  to  $699  36. 5  per  cent. 

700  to  799  44.5 

800  to  899  51.7 

900  to  999  66.7 

1000  to  1099  72.0 

When  it  is  remembered  that  in  most  quarters  of  the  city  an 
apartment  of  4  rooms  costs  more  than  $14  a  month,  it  will  be 
seen  that  no  very  high  standard,  in  the  matter  of  housing,  is  assured 
on  an  income  of  less  than  $900. 

2.  Comparison  of  Rent-charges  According  to  Locality 
and  Nationality. — The  tables  of  averages  (Tables  18  and  19,  pages 
86-87)  show  that  families  living  in  Manhattan  spend  somewhat 

75 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


more  for  rent  than  those  living  in  Brooklyn.  The  average  yearly 
expenditure  for  this  purpose  in  Manhattan  ranges  from  1 157.33  t0 
§185.72  as  the  income  rises  from  $600  to  $1 100,  or  24  and  18.1  per 
cent.,  respectively,  of  all  expenditures.  In  Brooklyn  the  averages 
range  from  $144.21  to  $171.40,  or  22.3  and  17.9  per  cent,  respec- 
tively, of  all  expenditures.  The  number  of  families  in  the  Bronx  and 
Queens  is  too  small  to  justify  citation  of  averages,  but  in  the  cases 
from  these  boroughs  the  figures  run  somewhat  lower  than  in 
Brooklyn. 

For  the  purpose  of  comparing  rents  in  different  parts  of  Man- 
hattan, arbitrary  lines  were  drawn  on  the  map,  dividing  the  bor- 
oughs into  five  districts:  North,  all  territory  north  of  96th  street; 
East,  east  of  Broadway,  between  14th  and  96th  streets;  South- 
east, east  of  Broadway,  south  of  14th  street;  South-west,  west  of 
Broadway,  south  of  14th  street;  West,  west  of  Broadway,  between 
14th  and  96th  streets.  The  tables  on  pages  90-91  show  the 
apportionment  of  the  Manhattan  families  among  these  districts, 
both  by  income  and  nationality.  Table  26  (page  91)  shows  that 
the  lowest  rents  are  paid  in  the  South-west,  where  only  2  fam- 
ilies out  of  24  pay  more  than  $15  a  month.  Between  the 
other  districts,  the  differences  are  not  so  marked.  However,  40  per 
cent,  of  the  families  north  of  96th  street  pay  more  than  $  1 5  a  month, 
as  compared  with  25  per  cent,  in  the  western  section,  33  per  cent, 
in  the  east,  and  36  per  cent,  in  the  lower  east  side. 

A  comparison  of  the  housing  expenditure  of  different  nationali- 
ties shows  that  the  highest  average  and  the  highest  percentage  of 
all  expenditures  is  reported  by  the  colored  people,  the  lowest  by 
the  Bohemians.  It  was  reported  that  higher  charges  were  made 
to  the  former  than  to  whites.  Arranging  the  nationalities  in 
descending  scale  according  to  expenditure  for  housing,  the  order 
seems  to  be:  Colored,  Teutonic  peoples,  Russian,  Austrian,  Ameri- 
can, Irish,  Italian,  Bohemian.  In  some  instances  the  number  of 
cases  is  too  small  to  warrant  very  confident  assertions  on  this 
point.    (See  Table  17,  page  85.) 

3.  Character  of  Housing  Accommodations. — Indications  on 
this  point  may  be  found  in  the  number  of  rooms,  the  number  of 
rooms  without  direct  access  to  outside  light  and  air,  the  presence 
or  absence  of  bath-room  and  toilet  in  the  apartment,  and  the 

76 


HOUSING 


ratio  of  number  of  rooms  to  number  of  persons  occupying  them 
at  night.  The  measurement  of  each  room  was  also  asked  for  in 
the  schedule,  and  the  number  of  cubic  feet  per  occupant  was 
calculated.  But  the  measurements  were  in  so  many  cases  in- 
exact that  this  item  has  not  been  included  in  the  tables. 

The  average  number  of  rooms  per  family  increases  with  income 
regularly,  being  for  Manhattan,  3.1  for  families  with  incomes  of 
between  $600  and  I700,  and  3.8  for  families  between  $1000 
and  $1100.  For  the  other  boroughs  the  figures  rise  correspond- 
ingly from  3.7  to  4.2.    (See  Tables  27  and  34,  pages  91  and  98.) 

The  number  of  families  reported  as  occupying  tenements  of 
2  rooms,  3  rooms,  etc.,  is  exhibited  in  Tables  28-33  (Pages  92_97)- 
It  appears  from  the  final  summary  that  out  of  115  Manhattan 
families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $800,  71  per  cent,  have 
no  more  than  3  rooms;  of  the  58  families  in  the  ?8oo  group,  48 
per  cent,  have  not  more  than  3  rooms,  and  of  the  70  families  with 
incomes  between  $900  and  $1 100,  39  per  cent,  live  in  3  rooms  or 
less.  The  percentage  of  families  having  not  more  than  3  rooms 
is  as  follows : 


Income. 

Total  Number  of  Families. 

Per  Cent.  Living  in  Three 
Rooms. 

Manhattan. 

Other  Boroughs. 

Manhattan. 

Other  Boroughs. 

US 

36 

71 

31 

58 

is 

48 

27 

70 

24 

39 

17 

A  comparison  of  nationalities  with  respect  to  number  of  rooms 
shows  a  range  for  Manhattan  of  an  average  for  the  American  fam- 
ilies of  from  3.2  ($700)  to  4.3  ($800) ;  for  the  Teutonic  nations  from 
3.4  ($800)  to  4.3  ($1000);  colored,  from  3.4  ($600)  to  4  ($900); 
Bohemians,  3  ($700)  to  3.25  ($900);  Russian,  3.1  ($600)  to  3.8 
($1000).  Austrians  average  3  rooms  for  the  $1000  group,  3.6 
for  the  $600  group.  The  Irish  range  from  3  ($600)  to  3.7  ($900), 
with  a  single  case  of  5  rooms  on  an  income  of  over  $1000.  The 
Italian  reports  show  the  lowest  average,  2.6  at  $600  and  3.9 
at  $900.  Considered  by  count  of  families,  the  same  relation  ex- 
ists.   Three-quarters  of  the  Italian  families  reported  from  Man- 

77 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


hattan  were  living  in  2  and  3  rooms,  one-quarter  of  them  in  2 
rooms.  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  Manhattan  Russians  were  in  2  and 
3  rooms,  and  the  same  proportion  was  true  of  the  Austrians.  Only  2 
of  the  14  Bohemian  families  reported  as  many  as  4  rooms.  Com- 
bining the  Americans,  Teutons  and  Irish,  36  out  of  88  families 
in  Manhattan,  or  40  per  cent.,  had  no  more  than  3  rooms. 

Fifty-three  per  cent,  of  all  the  39 1  families  report  dark  rooms ;  i.  e. , 
rooms  without  direct  access  to  outside  air  and  light.  (See  Tables 
34-38,  pages  98-102.)  Sixty  per  cent,  of  the  Manhattan  families 
report  dark  rooms,  and  32  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  outlying 
boroughs.  The  frequency  of  dark  rooms  seems  from  the  table  of 
averages  (Table  34,  page  98)  to  be  as  great  with  high  incomes 
as  with  lower.  The  count  of  cases,  however,  yields  more  favor- 
able indications,  as  appears  in  the  following  table  giving  the 
percentage  of  families  reporting  one  or  more  dark  rooms : 


All  Boroughs.  Manhattan. 


Income. 
$400    to  $599. 
600    to  799. 
800    to  899. 
900   to  1099. 
1 1 00  and  over. 
All  incomes. 


Per  Cent. 

.64 

.64 

•49 
.38 

•53 


Per  Cent. 

81 
67 

38 
60 


Other  Boroughs. 
Per  Cent. 

33 
19 
53 

p 

32 


fcre-/off 


1 

60% 

*o7. 

-////Ay//, 

////////A 

W//////< 

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\ 

¥0% 

60% 

Diagram  8. — Percentage  of  families  reporting  one  or  more  dark  rooms. 
The  black  part  of  the  bar  represents  the  proportion  of  families  who  had  at 
least  one  dark  room;  the  shaded  part,  the  proportion  who  had  none. 

78 


HOUSING 


The  extent  to  which  bath-rooms  and  toilets  are  included  within 
the  apartments  appears  from  the  following  summary  of  the 
number  and  percentage  of  families  reporting  them : 


Income. 

Total  Number 
of  Families. 

Reporting  Bath- 
room. 

Reporting  Toilet. 

No. 

Per  Cent. 

No. 

Per  Cent. 

25 

I 

4 

8 

32 

151 

21 

14 

40 

26 

73 

12 

16 

18 

24 

94 

23 

24 

29 

31 

48 

23 

48 

25 

40 

In  other  words,  not  more  than  a  quarter  of  the  families  possess 
these  conveniences  on  any  income  below  $1 100.  To  more  than 
three-fourths  of  the  families  with  incomes  under  this  amount, 
bath-tubs  and  separate  toilets  for  each  family  are  luxuries  in 
the  sense  in  which  Professor  Patten  uses  the  term;  i.  e.,  they  have 
not  yet  been  included  in  the  standard  of  living.  As  between 
different  localities,  about  one  family  in  7  of  the  Manhattan 
group  have  bath-rooms,  and  about  2  out  of  7  in  the  other  bor- 
oughs. A  private  toilet  is  reported  by  22  per  cent,  of  the  families 
in  Manhattan,  and  by  43  per  cent,  of  those  outside.  These  figures 
in  every  case  are  for  the  318  families  with  incomes  between 
$600  and  $1100,  243  being  in  Manhattan  and  75  outside. 
Tailing  the  same  families  by  nationality,  the  colored  and 
Russian  families  make  the  best  showing,  one  family  in  every 
three  reporting  bath-rooms  and  about  the  same  proportion  re- 
porting private  toilets.  This  may  be  due  in  part  to  the  selec- 
tion of  families  among  the  negroes,  the  whole  number  being  only 
28,  and  to  the  fact  that  the  Russians  are  more  largely  housed 
in  the  new-law  tenements  of  the  East  Side  than  the  families  of  the 
other  races.  Of  the  American  families  1  in  7  reports  bath-room,  1 
in  3,  private  toilet.  The  Teutons  and  Irish  report  both  fewer 
bath-rooms  and  private  toilets,  in  proportion,  than  the  Italians. 
The  Austrian  families  show  1  bath-room  for  every  5  families, 
and  a  private  toilet  in  2  cases  out  of  every  7. 

79 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


4.  Relation  between  Number  of  Rooms  and  Number  of 
Persons. — For  the  purpose  of  judging  of  the  degree  of  over-crowd- 
ing in  the  cases  embraced  in  this  report  the  number  of  families 
having  less  than  4  rooms  is  tabulated  in  Tables  39-45  (pages  103- 
108)  and  also  the  number  of  families  where  the  number  of  rooms 
is  less  than  1  to  every  ii  persons.  Since  none  of  the  families  in- 
cludes less  than  4  persons  and  the  greater  number  consist  of  5  or  6, 

4*. 


60 


¥0 


n 


1 

i1 


-  .§  S 


t 


Diagram  9. — Number  of  over-crowded  families  in  each  of  the  principal  income- 
groups. 

The  black  part  of  the  column  represents  the  over-crowded  families. 

an  allowance  of  4  rooms  would  not  seem  to  exceed,  as  a  rule,  the 
demands  of  decency.  To  make  allowance  for  variations  in  the 
number  of  persons  using  the  family  apartment,  a  standard  of 
1}  persons  to  a  room  has  been  applied.  That  is,  more  than  6 
persons  to  4  rooms,  and  more  than  4  persons  to  3  rooms,  are  con- 
sidered to  constitute  over-crowding.  Lodgers  are  included  in 
the  number  of  persons  occupying  the  rooms,  since  the  most 
serious  difficulty  regarding  fresh  air  is  found  at  night,  when  the 
lodgers  are  in  their  quarters.    A  count  of  families  on  this  basis 

80 


HOUSING 


shows  that  of  the  391  families  171,  or  44  per  cent.,  have  less  than 
3  rooms,  while  187,  or  48  percent.,  have  more  than  persons 
per  room.  In  the  lower  income-groups  over-crowding  is  the  rule. 
Sixty-one  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  incomes  between  $600 
and  $800  have  less  than  4  rooms;  58  per  cent.,  more  than  i£ 
persons  per  room.  In  the  $800  group  36  per  cent,  of  the  families 
have  less  than  4  rooms,  but  53  per  cent,  have  more  than  ij 
persons  per  room.  This  means  that  while  more  space  is  rented, 
lodgers  are  called  in  to  help  pay  for  it.  Thirty-five  per  cent,  of 
the  $900  and  $1000  families  have  less  than  4  rooms,  and  practically 
the  same  proportion  exceed  the  standard  ratio  of  persons  to 
rooms.  The  relief  when  the  income  exceeds  $1100  is  apparent. 
Of  the  48  families  in  this  income-group  only  2  report  less  than  4 
rooms,  and  10  report  a  ratio  of  more  than      persons  per  room. 

As  is  to  be  expected,  the  congestion  in  Manhattan  exceeds  that 
reported  in  Brooklyn,  Bronx  and  Queens.  In  the  outlying  bor- 
oughs the  percentage  of  over-crowded  families,  measured  by  the 
4-room  standard,  is  23  as  compared  with  51  per  cent,  in  Man- 
hattan. As  for  the  persons-per-room  standard,  29  per  cent,  of 
the  families  in  the  outside  boroughs  fall  below  it,  as  against  55 
per  cent,  in  Manhattan.  As  regards  nationalities,  the  following 
table  shows  the  proportion  of  families  out  of  the  318,  with  incomes 
between  $600  and  $1 100,  reporting  more  than  i  j  persons  per  room : 

Number  Reporting 
Total  Number      More  Than  i£ 


Nationality.               of  Families.     Persons  Per  Room.     Per  Cent. 

United  States   67  20  30 

Teutonic  nations   39  8  21 

Irish   24  12  50 

Colored   28  16  57 

Bohemian                      14  11  79 

Russian   57  35  61 

Austrian,  etc   32  21  66 

Italian   57  37  65 


318  160  50 

Our  figures  indicate  that  the  over-crowding  is  most  frequent  in 
the  families  with  incomes  less  than  $800  and  among  immigrants 
from  southern  Europe.    Further  light  may  be  thrown  on  the 
subject  by  noticing  the  apportionment  of  the  over-crowded  families 
6  81 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


among  those  having  surplus,  deficit,  or  even  balance  at  the  end 
of  the  year.  Grouped  on  this  basis  of  classification,  as  in  Tables  44 
and  45  (page  108),  we  find  that  34  percent,  of  the  over-crowded 
families  come  out  even,  44  per  cent,  report  a  surplus  and  only  22 
per  cent,  report  a  deficit.  When  this  is  compared  with  the  per- 
centage for  all  families;  viz.,  36  per  cent,  even  balance,  36  per 
cent,  surplus,  28  per  cent,  deficiency  (Table  119,  page  235),  it 
seems  not  improbable  that  the  over-crowded  families  are  able 
to  come  out  on  the  right  side  in  the  larger  number  of  instances 


60 


to 


6>o 


n  I □■ 


mn  1 1 


Diagram  10. — Number  of  over-crowded  families  in  each  of  the  nationality-groups. 

by  reason  of  their  living  according  to  a  low  standard  in  the  matter 
of  housing.  This  is  suggested  especially  by  a  comparison  of 
families  reporting  surplus,  by  income-groups: 

Percentage  of 
Percentage  of  all        Over-crowded  Fam- 
Families  Reporting  ilies  Reporting 

Income.  Surplus.  Surplus. 

$600  to  $699   28  30 

700  to  799   33  43 

800  to  899   48  56 

900  to  999   35  48 

1000  to  1099   42  44 

82 


HOUSING 


The  analysis  of  over-crowded  families  according  to  sources  of 
income  shows  that  over-crowding  is  more  frequent  among  families 
where  the  father  is  not  the  sole  bread-winner  (Table 43,  page  107). 
Forty-seven  per  cent,  of  all  the  318  families  are  supported  by  the 
father  alone,  while  only  41  percent,  of  the  over-crowded  families 
are  thus  supported.  This  disparity  is  most  striking  in  the  families 
with  incomes  between  $900  and  $1000.  Fifty-four  per  cent,  of 
all  families  in  this  group  are  supported  entirely  by  the  father, 
as  against  36  per  cent,  of  the  over-crowded  families  in  this  group. 
In  the  other  income-groups  the  ratio  corresponds  more  nearly  to 
that  prevailing  among  the  families  as  a  whole. 

5.  Over-crowding  and  Lodgers. — An  analysis  of  over-crowded 
families  with  reference  to  sources  of  income  brings  out  the  re- 
lation of  lodgers  to  the  housing  problem.  In  the  first  place, 
the  function  of  the  lodger  as  a  rent-paying  necessity  appears  in 
the  large  proportion  of  lodgers  in  high-priced  tenements.  It 
will  be  seen  in  Table  46  (page  109)  that  lodgers  are  reported  by 
20  per  cent,  of  the  Manhattan  families  which  pay  $10  or  less  a 
month  for  rent,  by  23  per  cent,  of  those  paying  from  $10  to  $14, 
by  50  per  cent,  of  those  paying  from  $14  to  $16,  and  by  62  per 
cent,  of  the  families  paying  over  $16.  An  inspection  of  the  same 
table  will  show  also  that  many  families  with  incomes  under  $900 
pay  $175  and  more  annually  for  housing,  but  that  in  almost  all 
of  these  cases,  lodgers  are  taken  to  eke  out  the  income.* 

Coming  now  to  the  over-crowded  families  (Table  48,  page  no), 
it  appears  that  lodgers  are  more  frequent  among  them  than  among 
the  remaining  families  reported.  Twenty-nine  per  cent,  of  the 
318  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1100  have  lodgers, 
while  41  per  cent,  of  the  160  over-crowded  families  have  lodgers. 
Further,  of  the  93  families  reporting  lodgers,  65  families,  or  70  per 
cent.,  are  over-crowded. 

6.  Increase  of  Rent  since  1905. — The  burden  of  high  rentals 
was  increased  up  to  the  middle  of  the  year  1907  by  the  general  ten- 

*  One  man  who  filled  out  a  schedule  for  his  own  family  writes:  "I  think  it 
would  be  just  as  well  to  include  in  the  report  the  letting  of  one  room  at  the  rate  of 
$5.00  per  week,  50  weeks  per  year.  That  is  the  general  thing  we  have  done,  but 
I  dislike  to  have  roomers  and  had  decided  to  do  without  them,  but  figuring  up  the 
expense  without  them,  guess  will  have  to  try  it  again  soon."  The  writer  was  pay- 
ing $360  a  year  for  a  steam-heated  apartment  on  a  total  income  of  $1500. 

83 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


dency  of  rents  to  rise.  In  answer  to  the  questions  in  regard  to 
increase  of  rent  it  was  reported  by  the  243  Manhattan  families  that 
45  of  them  had  been  in  their  present  quarters  less  than  one  year. 
Of  the  198  who  had  been  a  year  or  more  in  the  same  tenement, 
102,  or  a  trifle  more  than  half,  reported  increase  of  rent.  The 
amount  of  increase  varied  from  50  cents  to  $5  a  month,*  but 
in  the  majority  of  cases  was  $1.00,  $1.50,  or  $2.00.  As  be- 
tween the  different  parts  of  the  island,  divided  into  the  re- 
gions already  designated,  an  increase  was  reported  in  60  per 
cent,  of  the  cases  in  the  central  East,  in  57  per  cent,  of  the 
cases  in  the  central  West,  in  53  per  cent,  of  the  cases  in  the  South- 
east, 43  per  cent,  for  the  South-west,  and  17  per  cent.  (3  cases  out 
of  18)  for  the  North.  As  between  the  different  amounts  paid  for 
rent,  the  increase  seems  to  vary  arbitrarily.  The  details  may  be 
found  in  Tables  49  and  50  (page  no). 

*  One  family  on  Essex  Street  has  been  in  its  present  tenement  for  10  years. 
It  now  pays  $23.00  a  month  for  4  rooms,  with  toilet  in  apartment.  Two  years 
before  the  rent  was  $18.00. 


84 


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CO  CM    M  M 


y 

Qi 

CO 


O 
O 

NO 


M 
W 
£>- 

9 


CO." 


87 


TABLE  20.— RENT  PER  MONTH:  MANHATTAN.    NUMBER  OF 
FAMILIES  PAYING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 


Rent  per  Month. 

$400  to 
S599. 

S600  to 
$699. 

$700  to 
$799. 

$800  to 
$899. 

$900  to 
$999. 

$1000 

to 
$1099. 

$1100 

and 
Over. 

Total, 
Incomes 
$600  to 
$1099. 

Total, 
All  In- 
comes. 

$io  and  under. 

4 

10 

12 

6 

3 

-- 

I 

31 

36 

$10  to  Si  2  

5 

8 

17 

9 

6 

2 

I 

42 

48 

$12  to  $14  

5 

20 

!3 

21 

13 

7 

4 

74 

83 

$14  to  $16  .... 

1 

8 

6 

8 

9 

7 

3 

38 

42 

$16  to  $18  

1 

5 

8 

3 

7 

6 

3 

29 

33 

Over  $18  

1 

7 

11 

7 

3 

20 

29 

49 

Total  

16 

52 

63 

58 

45 

25 

32 

243 

291 

TABLE  21.— RENT  PER  MONTH:   MANHATTAN.     NUMBER  AND 
PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  PAYING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— 
BY  NATIONALITY. 


Nationality. 

Num- 
ber 

OF 

Fam- 

$10 Per 

Month 

AND 

Under. 

Over  $10 
to  $12 

Per 
Month. 

Over  SI 2 
TO  $14 

Per 
Month. 

Over  $14 
TO  $16 

Per 
Month. 

Over  $16 
TO  $18 

Per 
Month. 

Over 
$18  Per 
Month. 

ilies. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

United  States. . 

44 

7 

16 

8 

18 

13 

29 

6 

14 

4 

9 

6 

14 

27 
17 

3 
3 

II 

7 
6 

26 

6 

22 

2 

8 

3 
2 

II 

6 

22 

18 

35 

3 

18 

3 

18 

II 

Colored  

28 

1 

4 

1 

4 

9 

32 

6 

21 

4 

14 

7 

25 

14 
34 

6 

42 

3 

6 

42 

3 

1 

8 

1 

8 

Russian  

1 

1 

9 

26 

9 

26 

12 

36 

2 

6 

Austrian,  etc.. . 

30 

1 

3 

5 

17 

13 

43 

5 

17 

5 

17 

1 

3 

Italian  

49 

9 

19 

8 

16 

20 

4i 

6 

12 

3 

6 

3 

6 

Total  

243 

31 

13 

42 

17 

74 

30 

38 

16 

33 

12 

25 

12 

88 


< 

o 

u 
w 

*w 

5° 

*£ 

§« 

&  I. 

*e 

8 
B 

O 


N  Nh  NfO        Oh  O 


CO  CO  lOvO   ^       m  u->  On 


•^j-oo  co  t^-o      «  m 


CO  NO  CO  On  t""»       ^tCO  NO 


id 


2-° 


CO  t*»  OnNO   N        l-O  On 00 


OnCO   O  *>•    •       CO   O  't 


NO  t^CO   On  O        t— 00  O 


ooooo  ooo 


< 
to 

►J 

< 
to 

wo 

Ah 

£~ 

I* 

O 


$20  PER 

Month  and 
Above. 

Per 
Ccent. 

,  ^nO  co  o 
■  OnCO  ro  -j- 

Num- 
ber. 

•  no  vonO  m 

9  PER 
TH  AND 
JOVE. 

Per 
Cent. 

On  H  co  no  O 

H    H  Nl^lfi 
M    M    W  M 

Num- 
ber. 

H   N  O  N 

7  PER 
TH  AND 
BOVE. 

Per 
Cent. 

no  h  ao 

J>-  On  "3"  CO  NO 

M     W     W  CO 

Num- 
ber. 

^  (N   rt  CO  On 

$15  PER 

Month  and 
Above. 

Per 
Cent. 

h  rf  q  NO 
CO  COCO  no"  O 
CS    CO  CO  TTNO 

Num- 
ber. 

<S    M    (N)    M  u-> 
Hi    <N   <N   <N  w 

$14  PER 

Month  and 
Above. 

Per 
Cent. 

\ri  to  i>.  r««  q 

NO    4  h  'O  N 
co  rr  uonO 

Num- 
ber. 

OnCO  O  O  CO 

M    <N    CO  CO  M 

50  PER 
TH  AND 
LOW. 

Per 
Cent. 

to  no  co  <n  q 

N   N  6\  «  CI 
■t  *  M    N  M 

Num- 
ber. 

Cs  O  l"**  O  co 

N    CO  M  M 

1  PER 
m  AND 
LOW. 

Per 
Cent. 

N  O  fON 
On  On  O  no'  ! 

^  Z  « 

S|« 

Num- 
ber. 

O    CN  NO    CO  • 

Below 

$10  PER 

Month. 

Per 
Cent. 

NO     M  N»NO 

On  H  m  no'  ! 

Num- 
ber. 

lO  t>»  M    CO  ' 

■sarnwvj 
io  saoica^ 

<N    COCO  U->  lO 

vonO  io  ^  «n 

Income. 

$6oo  to    $699. . 
$700  to  $799.. 
$800  to   $899 .  . 
$900  to  $999. . 
$1000  to  $1099.. 

89 


TABLE  24.— RENT  PER  MONTH:  BROOKLYN  AND  BRONX.  NUM- 
BER OF  FAMILIES  PAYING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME. 


Brooklyn. 

Bronx. 

Num- 

Income. 

Income. 

Rent  per  Month. 

ber  OF 
Fami- 

$600 

$700 

$800 

$900 

$1000 

lies. 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

All  Incomes 

$699. 

$799. 

$899. 

$999. 

$1099. 

$io  and  under. ... 

9 

3 

4 

2 

3 

20 

7 

5 

4 

3 

1 

2 

10 

3 

2 

2 

2 

1 

2 

$14  to  $16  

11 

2 

3 

1 

3 

2 

6 

$16  to  $18  

-•?-f  ;  .. 

1 

1 

Over  $18..  

r ;.  ' 

1 

1 

Total  

52 

14 

9 

10 

4 

i5 

TABLE  25.— DISTRIBUTION  INTO  DISTRICTS  OF  243  MANHATTAN 
FAMILIES.— BY  RENT,  INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 
(A)  By  Monthly  Rent. 


Monthly  Rent. 

N. 

E. 

S.  E. 

S.  W. 

w. 

Total. 

$10  and  under  

5 

9 

6 

5 

6 

31 

$10.50  to  $12 .50  

8 

9 

21 

6 

8 

52 

5 

15 

27 

11 

28 

86 

$15.50  to  $17.50  

4 

6 

16 

1 

9 

36 

8 

10 

14 

1 

5 

38 

Total  

30 

49 

84 

24 

56 

243 

(B)  By  Income. 

Income. 

N. 

E. 

S.  E. 

s.  w. 

w. 

Total. 

$600  to  $699  

7 

9 

15 

6 

15 

52 

10 

8 

25 

6 

14 

63 

$800  to  $899  

7 

15 

19 

4 

13 

58 

2 

12 

17 

4 

IO 

45 

$1000  to  $1099  

4 

5 

8 

4 

4 

25 

Total  

30 

49 

84 

24 

56 

243 

(C)  By  Nationality. 

Nationality. 

N. 

E. 

S.  E. 

S.  W. 

W. 

Total. 

United  States  

2 

14 

8 

6 

14 

44 

Teutonic   

2 

5 

7 

3 

IO 

27 

4 

5 

8 

17 

10 

1 

17 

28 

14 

14 

2 

3 

29 

34 

Austrian,  etc  

8 

21 

z 

30 

10 

4 

19 

10 

6 

49 

Total  

30 

49 

84 

24 

56 

243 

90 


TABLE  26.— RENT  PER   MONTH:    MANHATTAN.     NUMBER  AND 
PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  PAYING  RENT  OF  GIVEN 
AMOUNTS.— BY  DISTRICT. 


N  Families  Paying  Monthly  Rental  of  : 

o  


k 

S10. 

00  and 

$10.50  to 

$13 

.00  to 

$15 

.50  to 

$18.00  and 

District. 

under. 

$12.50 

$15.00 

$17.50 

over. 

23 

i£ 

H 

0 

c 

a 

d 

g 

d 

s 

CJ 

c 

O 

H 

s 

£ 

U 

CJ 

1 

0 

M 

S 

U 

1 

« 

PM 

1 

0 
Pi 

1 

h 

9 
Cl, 

North  

30 

5 

16.7 

8 

26.7 

5 

16.7 

4 

!3-3 

8 

26.7 

East  

49 

9 

18.4 

9 

18.4 

15 

30.6 

6 

12.2 

10 

20.4 

South-east.  . . 

84 

6 

7-i 

21 

25.O 

27 

32.I 

16 

19 .0 

14 

16.7 

South-west. . . 

24 

5 

20.8 

6 

25.O 

11 

45-8 

1 

4.2 

1 

4-2 

West  

56 

6 

10.7 

8 

14-3 

28 

50.0 

9 

16. 1 

5 

8-9 

Total  

243 

31 

12.7 

52 

21.4 

86 

35-4 

36 

14.8 

38 

T5-6 

TABLE   27.— NUMBER  OF  ROOMS  PER   FAMILY:  MANHATTAN. 
AVERAGES.— BY  INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 


Number  of 
Families. 

Income. 

Nationality. 

$600  to 
$699 

$700  to 
$799 

$800  to 
$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

44 

3-3 

3-2 

4.25 

4-1 

3-8 

Teutonic  

27 

3-5 

3-7 

3-4 

4-25 

4-3 

Irish  

17 

3-o 

3-4 

3-4 

3-7 

5-o 

Colored  

28 

3-45 

4-3 

3-9 

4.0 

4.0 

14 

3-25 

3-o 

3-9 

3-25 

34 

3-i 

3-25 

3-25 

3-7 

3-8 

30 

3-6 

3-i 

3-55 

3-o 

3-o 

49 

2.6 

2.8 

3-2 

3-9 

3-2 

Total  

243 

3-i 

3-3 

3-5 

3-7 

•3-8 

91 


•stnoo^j 


•sraoo^j 

9ATJ 


•stnoo^ 


•sraoo-g 


■suioo^j 

OAVX 


jo  aaquin^ 


•suioo^i 


•sraoo-g 


•sraoo-g 


*SUIOO^[ 


jo  ^quin^; 


•snioo-g 


•staoo-jj 


•suioo'g 
moj 


w      O  to 


•sraoo-g 

93ItJX 


•sraoo-g 


jo  jVqran^j 


r*    U         J  In 

SO    SO  So 


-9  S3 


So 


So 


So 


So  So 


So 


92 


•SUIOO'g 


N    H  MM 


•suioo^j 


\O\0  MM  H  W 


•sraoo-jj 


•sraoo-g 


fO      00  PO       O  <N  N 


•sraoo-g 


jo  iaquin^ 


•suioo-g 


•smoog 


sinoo-g 


N    H  lO  M 


•sinoo-g 

33-RX 


•suioo-a 


jo  jVqmn^ 


10  m    o  <n 


lO  M  M 


•sraoo-g 


•suioo-g 


"SUIOO'JJ 
JllOJ 


u-j  ro      CO  cs  m  cs 


•sraoo-g 


•sraoo^ 


jo  iVqmnj^ 


m  m         t~-  com 


3 


r<  m 


cd 


.Mm       Jh   m       J*  m 

§3  3a 

So  So  So  So  So  So  So  So 


93 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  29.— NUMBER  OF  ROOMS  PER  FAMILY.— BY  BOROUGH 
AND  INCOME. 


Income. 


$400  to   $499 . . 

$500  to  $599 . . 

$600  to  $699 . . 

$700  to  $799 . . 

$800  to   $899 .  . 

$900  to  $999 . . 
$1000  to  $1099. . 
$1100  to  $1199. . 
$1200  to  $1299 . . 
$1300  to  $1399. . 
$1400  and  over.. 

Total  

$400  to  $599 . . 
$600  to  $799 . . 
$800  to  $899 . . 
$900  to  $1099. . 
$1100  and  over* 


Manhattan. 


si 


si 


Bronx,  Brooklyn,  and  Queens. 


o  ^ 
6  6 


1° 


D  I/) 

31 


fa  3 


fa  o 


291 

16 

58 
70 
32 


26 

4 
16 

2 

3 
1 


128 

9 
66 
26 
24 

3 


106 

3 
28 
27 
33 
15 


94 


9 

o 

& 

? 

Q 

W 

s? 

M 

pq 
O 

u 

CO 

o 

o 
P4 

£>< 
«p 

is 

p< 
w 

Ph 

CO 

O 

§ 

to 

o 


31 


•sraoo-g 


•sraoo^  ^ 


•sraocg 


oo      <n        •  tj-ioco  to 

r 


•SUIOO-a  ,  VO  CO  M   CO  GO   "d"  Tj-  00 


•sraoo-y; 


jo  jaqamfl; 


CO  C\  t^-co  CO  w  c\  <n 


•suioo-ji 


•sxaoo-jj 


•SUIOO>J  a,  xo  CO 


VO  CO  M  VO 


•smoo^I      \o  cm  -t  rj-  co     io  oo 

33jqX  ^ 


•stuoo^; 


^  ^  CO       On  •* 

jo  jaqain^     m  M  m 


•staoo-jj 


•scaoo^[ 


•saioo-y;  ^  <n  •  co  m  oo  tJ-  cs  <o 
anoj 


•sraoo-g  ^ow'tNfoioMoo 

33iqX  «*3 


•suioo-jj 


jo  jaqran^j;     m  mm 


•m  3  -2  w  t3  a 
2  «r  O  O  3  3  «1 


•stnoo'jj 
X!S 

CO  CM    H  *       .      .      .  M 
N     •     •  • 

o 

•suioo^ 

M    CM    CO  M      •    lO  M  CO 
M  • 

•o 

CM 

•sraoo^ 
jnoj 

M   -<t00   CO  CM   ^  CM  CO 
CO  <N           M           CS    M  M 

•suioo^j 

NH    N    «   «   U-)VO  VO 

ro 

•sxnoo^ 
omx 

xn  >    •    •    •  to  co 

•      t      •      •  M 

to 

•S3iinn'Bj[ 
jo  a'aquin^ 


•sraoo-g 


•sraoo^ 


•sinoo-jj 
anoj 


•suioo^j 


•siaoo^[ 


•S3I]TOI^j[       00  00   M  M 

jo  laqumM 


•suioo^j 


•saioo^[ 
3AU 


•suioo-a       oo  t*~»  CO  01 


•sraoo^       co  cm  m    .  co  co 


•sinoo^f 
oavx 


jo  laqranj^ 


VO    M    m  CN  TfQ>Na 


C  J).2  OO  3  3 


o 


95 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  31.— NUMBER  OF  ROOMS  PER  FAMILY:    ALL  BOROUGHS 
COMBINED.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Num- 
ber OF 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Two 
Rooms. 

Three 
Rooms. 

Four 
Rooms. 

Five 
Rooms. 

Six 
Rooms. 

8 

1 

4 

3 

17 

3 

10 

4 

•- 

72 

8 

37 

23 

4 

$700  to   $799.  .•  

79 

10 

38 

26 

3 

2 

73 

4 

28 

33 

6 

2 

63 

2 

18 

32 

9 

2 

31 

1 

10 

13 

4 

3 

18 

1 

2 

7 

7 

1 

8 

3 

2 

3 

$1300  to  $1399  

8 

1 

3 

4 

14 

2 

0 

4 

2 

Total  

$400  to  $599  

$800  to  $899  

39i 

25 
151 
73 
■-94 
48 

3° 

4 
18 

4 

3  • 
1 

150 

14 

75 
28 
28 
5 

153 

7 
49 
33 
45 
19 

43 

7 
6 

13 
17 

15 

2 
2 

5 
6 

96 


HOUSING 


TABLE  32.— NUMBER  OF  ROOMS  PER  FAMILY.  PERCENTAGES. 
—BY  INCOME  AND  BOROUGH. 


Income. 

Manhattan. 

Bronx,  Brooklyn  and 
Queens. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Two  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Three  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Four  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Five  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Six  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Two  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Three  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Four  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Five  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Six  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

$600  to  $699  

52 

14 

63 

19 

4 

20 

5 

20 

65 

10 

$700  to  $799  

63 

14 

52 

29 

2 

3 

16 

6 

31 

5o 

13 

$800  to  $899  

58 

3 

45 

47 

5 

15 

13 

14 

40 

20 

13 

$900  to  $999  

45 

5 

33 

49 

11 

2 

18 

16 

56 

22 

6 

$1000  to  $1099  

25 

4 

36 

44 

8 

8 

6 

17 

33 

33 

17 

16 

25 

56 

19 

9 

56 

44 

115 

14 

57 

24 

3 

2 

36 

*6 

25 

58 

II 

$800  to  $899  

58 

3 

45 

47 

5 

15 

13 

14 

40 

20 

13 

70 

5 

34 

47 

10 

4 

24 

17 

5o 

25 

8 

32 

3 

9 

47 

25 

16 

16 

13 

25 

56 

6 

291 

9 

45 

36 

7 

3 

100 

4 

22 

47 

22 

5 

TABLE  33.— NUMBER  OF  ROOMS  PER  FAMILY:    ALL  BOROUGHS 
COMBINED.    PERCENTAGES.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Two  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Three  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Four  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Five  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

Six  Rooms, 
Per  cent. 

$600  to  $699  

72 

II 

51 

32 

6 

79 

13 

48 

33 

4 

2 

$800  to  $899  

73 

6 

38 

45 

8 

3 

$900  to  $999  

63 

3 

29 

5i 

14 

3 

$1000  to  $1099  

31 

3 

32 

42 

13 

10 

25 

16 

56 

28 

151 

12 

50 

32 

5 

z 

$800  to  $899  

73 

6 

38 

45 

8 

3 

$900  to  $1099  

94 

3 

30 

48 

14 

5 

$1100  and  over  

48 

2 

IO 

40 

35 

13 

391 

8 

38 

39 

11 

4 

97 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  34. — NUMBER  OF  ROOMS,  DARK  ROOMS,  BATH  ROOMS 
PRIVATE  TOILETS,  PER  FAMILY.     AVERAGES.— BY  IN- 
COME AND  BOROUGH. 


Manhattan. 

Brooklyn,  Bronx,  and  Queens. 

Income. 

f  Fam- 

Average  Number 
Family. 

PER 

f  Fam- 

Average  Number  per 
Family. 

Number  0 
ilies 

Rooms. 

Dark 
Rooms. 

Bath- 
rooms. 

Private 
Toilets. 

Number  0 
ilies 

Rooms. 

Dark 
Rooms. 

Bath- 
rooms. 

Private 
Toilets. 

$400  to  $499  

4 

3-0 

1.0 

.. 

.. 

4 

3-5 

0.2 

.. 

0.7 

$500  to  $599.,.. 

12 

2.9 

1.2 

0.08 

5 

3-4 

0.4 

0.2 

0.4 

$600  to   $699 .... 

52 

3-i 

I.I 

O.IO 

O.17 

20 

3-7 

0.2 

0.4 

0.7 

$700  to  $799 .... 

63 

3-3 

O.97 

0.08 

O.19 

16 

3-7 

0.2 

°-3 

°-5 

$800  to  $899  

58 

3-5 

1-3 

0.17 

O.24 

15 

3-9 

i-5 

0.1 

$000  to  $000 .... 

45 

3-7 

1.1 

0.18 

O.27 

18 

3-9 

0.4 

0.4 

0.8 

$1000  to  $1099. . . . 

'j 

1  8 

I  A. 

O  1  A. 

0  1  ± 
w- -  4 

6 

O  7C 

°-5 

o.75 

$1100  to  $1199  

9 

3-7 

o-3 

O.II 

°-33 

9 

4.9 

0.2 

0.7 

0.6 

$1200  to  $1299  

7 

5-c 

1.0 

O.7 

0.7 

1 

5-o 

3-o 

1.0 

1.0 

$1300  to  $1399  

5 

4.4 

0.4 

0.2 

0.2 

3 

4-3 

i-7 

o-3 

0.7 

$1400  and  over  

11 

5-o 

1.4 

o.S 

0.8 

3 

4.0 

1.0 

1.0 

1.0 

291 

100 

$400  to  $599  

16 

2.9 

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TABLE  37.— DARK  ROOMS,  BATH-ROOMS,  ETC.    NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES REPORTING.— BY  BOROUGHS,  (COMBINED  AND 
SEPARATE)  AND  INCOME. 


Income. 


$400  to  $499 
$500  to  $599, 
$600  to  $699. 
$700  to  $799, 
$800  to  $§99 . 
$900  to  $999. 

$1000  to  $1099. 

$1100  to  $1199. 

$1200  to  $1299 . 

$1300  to  $1300. 

$1400  and  over 

Total  

$400  to  $599. 
$600  to  $799 . 
$800  to  $899 . 
$900  to  $1099. 
$1100  and  over. 


All  Boroughs. 


391 
25 

73 
94 


208 

16 
81 

47 
46 
18 


Manhattan. 


291  176 


16 

115 
58 
70 
32 


8  13 

6I  5 
1  3 
5  5 
1  1 

7  7 


Bronx,  Brooklyn, 
and  Queens. 


101 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  38.— DARK  ROOMS,  BATH-ROOMS,  ETC.    NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES REPORTING.    PERCENTAGES.— BY  BOROUGHS  (COM- 
BINED AND  SEPARATE)  AND  INCOME. 


All  Boroughs. 


Income. 


11 


5  c  \# 


Manhattan. 


U 


S3  c    «3  iCh 


3  1 1 1  g  1 


_  b5 
o  S 

g  8 


Brooklyn,  Bronx, 
and  Queens. 


u  2 
c  g 


$6oo  to  $699  

$700  to  $799  

$800  to  $899  

$900  to  $999  

$1000  to  $1099  

$400  to  $599  

$600  to  $799  

$800  to  $899  

$900  to  $1099  

$1100  and  over  

Total  (all  incomes) 


72 
79 
73 
63 
3i 

25 
151 
73 
94 
48 


52 


67 


63  I  56 
58  !  67 


32  16 


39i 


38  48 
S3  I  20 


115 
58 
70 
32 


6  33 


291     60   17  I  25 


100  32 


3° 
3i 
13 

28 

5o 

1 1 

3i 
13 
33 
56 

31 


55 
50 
20 
44 
50 

55 
53 
20 

46 
56 

47 


102 


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05 


TABLE  41. — OVER-CROWDED  FAMILIES.  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES 
REPORTING  LESS  THAN  FOUR  ROOMS  AND  OVER  \\  PFRSONS 
PER  ROOM.— BY  INCOME  AND  BOROUGHS  (COMBINED  AND 
SEPARATE). 


All  Boroughs. 

Manhattan. 

Brooklyn,  Bronx,  and 
Queens. 

Income. 

5- 

11 

Having 
less  than 

Four 
Rooms. 

Over 
1+  Per- 
sons per 
Room. 

"8 

H 

0 

h 

Having 
less  than 

Four 
Rooms. 

Over 
ii  Per- 
sons per 
Room. 

"o 
&>  . 

fj 

Having 
less  than 

Four 
Rooms. 

Over 
ij  Per- 
sons per 
Room. 

O 

H 

S  u 

P 

g  S3 

Hi 

h 
1-° 

el 

O.CJ 

P 

3* 
0 

|* 

S  H 

0>  g 

0-CJ 

$400  to  $499 
■b$oo  to  vS>599 
«&>ooo  to  ^099 
$700  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $999 
$1000  to  $1099 
$1100  to  $1199 
$1200  to  $1299 
$1300  to  $1399 
$1400  and  over 

8 

T7 

72 

79 
73 
63 
3i 
18 
8 
8 
14 

5 

46 
46 
26 
21 
12 
1 

76 
64 

58 
36 

33 
39 
'  6 

J_ 

5 

12 
41 
46 
39 
25 
9 
3 

4 

3 

63 

71 

57 
58 

53 
40 
29 
17 

5o 

4 
12 

52 
63 
58 
45 
25 
9 
7 
5 

10 

3 

10 
40 

41 
24 

19 
11 

75 

53 
77 

65 

41 

42 

44 

3 
9 
36 
41 
32 
22 
8 
3 

2 
2 

75 
75 
69 

65 
55 
49 
32 
33 

40 
20 

4 

20 
16 

15 
18 
6 
9 

3 
4 

2 
6 

5 
2 
2 
1 
1 

1 



50 
60 

3° 
3i 

!3 

11 

i7 
11 

:: 

2 

3 

5 

5 

7 

3 
1 

2 
1 

50 
60 
25 

31 
47 
17 
17 

67 
25 

Total  

39i 

171 

44 

187 

48 

290 

148 

51 

158 

55 

101 

23 

23 

29 

29 

$400  to  $599 
$600  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $1099 
$1100  and  over 

25 
151 
73 
94 
48 

18 
92 
26 
33 

2 

72 
61 
36 
35 
42 

17 
87 
39 
34 
10 

68 
58 
53 
36 
21 

16 

115 
58 
70 

31 

13 
81 

24 

30 

8I 

70 
41 
43 

12 
77 
32 
3° 
7 

80 
67 
55 
43 
23 

9 
36 
15 
24 
17 

5 
11 
2 

3 
2 

55 

31 
13 
13 

12 

5 

10 
7 
4 

3 

55 
30 
47 
17 
18 

TABLE  42.— OVER-CROWDED   FAMILIES.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES 
HAVING  MORE  THAN  \\  PERSONS  PER  ROOM.— 
BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


Total 

Over-crowded — Number  of  Families. 

Num- 

Nationality. 

ber  of 

$600 

$700 

$800 

$900 

$1000 

Fam- 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

Total. 

ilies. 

$699. 

$799. 

$899. 

$999. 

$1099. 

67 

4 

8 

1 

4 

3 

20 

39 

2 

1 

3 

2 

8 

4 

3 

1 

12 

u 

7 

t 

3 

1 

1 

16 

14 

2 

3 

3 

11 

57 

7 

| 

12 

5 

2 

35 

32 

3 

6 

5 

6 

1 

21 

Italian  

57 

12 

9 

3 

2 

37 

Total  

3^8 

41 

~  46 

39 

25 

9 

160 

106 


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107 


TABLE  44.— OVER-CROWDED  FAMILIES.   NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT. 
REPORTING  SURPLUS  AND  DEFICIT.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 


$600  to  $699 
$700  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $999 
$1000  to  $1099 
Total  

$600  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $1099 


0 

Reporting  : 

Balance 

«s 

within 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

a  s 

§  « 

$25.00. 

b 

1* 

£  a 

O 

"  P. 
*U 

DO 

u 

72 

4i 

i5 

36 

12 

3° 

14 

34 

79 

46 

17 

37 

20 

43 

9 

20 

73 

39 

10 

26 

22 

56 

7 

18 

63 

25 

10 

40 

12 

48 

3 

12 

31 

9 

2 

22 

4 

44 

3 

10 

3i8 

160 

54 

34 

70 

44 

36 

22 

151 

87 

32 

37 

32 

37 

23 

26 

73 

39 

10 

26 

22 

56 

7 

18 

94 

34 

12 

35 

16 

47 

6 

18 

TABLE    45.— OVER-CROWDED    FAMILIES.    NUMBER  REPORTING 
SURPLUS  AND  DEFICIT.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

nber 
ies. 

Number 
Reporting  : 

Number 
Reporting  : 

Number 
Reporting  : 

Nationality. 

3 '5 

J 

8 

8 

1 

a'* 

□  m 

35 

plus. 

"0 

tC 

umb 
■"ami 

ance 
$25, 

plus. 

"G 

US 

11 

93 

plus. 

'0 

vG 

3 

P 

u 
3 

V 

p 

"1 

4 

3 

8 

3 

2 

3 

I 

Teutonic  

2 

1 

1 

1 

I 

i 

I 

2 

Irish  

4 

2 

I 

I 

4 

1 

I 

2 

3 

7 

3 

I 

3 

4 

3 

1 

3 

3 

2 

1 

1 

3 

3 

3 

3 

7 

2 

2 

3 

9 

2 

7 

12 

1 

10 

1 

3 

1 

2 

6 

3 

3 

5 

3 

2 

12 

2 

6 

4 

11 

2 

6 

_3_ 

9 

1 

7 

1 

Total  

41 

i5 

12 

14 

46 

~*7 

20 

9 

39 

10 

22 

7 

Nationality. 


$900  to  $999     $1000  to  $1099 


Number 
Reporting  : 


E  3  c  " 


i  ? 


Total. 


Number 
Reporting: 


ii  Is 

3  I*  f«! 


'5 


Families  Reporting: 


|  —  Balance.:  Surplus.)  Deficit. 


United  States. 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc. 
Italian  


Total. 


25  10 


2 

9  I  2 


20 
8 
12 
16 
11 

55 

21 

37 
160 


55 
^5 
25 
3S 
91 
*7 
48 
£7 
54  I  34 


15 
25 
50 
19 

65 
52 
^_ 
44  ! 


3^> 


108 


TABLE  46. — RENT  IN  RELATION  TO  LODGERS:  MANHATTAN.— 

BY  INCOME. 


$600 

TO 

$699 

$700 

TO 

$799 

$800 

TO 

$899 

$900 

TO 

$999 

1  $1000 

TO 

$1099 

Total. 

Rent  per  Month. 

Number 
of  Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 
of  Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 
of  fam- 
ilies. 

Number 
of  Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 
of  Fam- 
ilies. 

Number  of 
Families. 

n 

Si  ? 

i ~i 

"s 

•at 
£3 

oi 

■£  £ 

"3 

"S 

oi 

£  s 

•--3 

ith 
gers. 

s 

H 

s~ 

►3 

"i 

£, 

$io  and  under  

10 

2 

12  ;  4 

I7|  4 

6 

3 
6 

31 
42 

6 

i9-5 
23-8 

$10  to  $12  

2 

9 

2 

1 

2 

1 

10 

20 

4 

13!  5 

21 

6 

13 

I 

■• 

1 

74 

17 

23.0 

$14  to  $16  

8 

6  2 

8 

2 

9 

2 

7 

5 

28 

14 

50.0 

$16  to  $18  

I 

4 

8  5 
7  4 

3 
11 

2 

7 

5 

3 

2 

29 
29 

18 

62.1 
62.1 

Over  $18  

10 

7 

3 

1 

18 

Total  

52 

is 

63  1  24 

58 

22 

45 

12 

25 

10 

243 

83 

34-o 

TABLE  47.— RENT  IN   RELATION  TO   LODGERS:  MANHATTAN 
PERCENTAGES*.— BY  INCOME. 


$600  to 
$699 

$700  to 
$799 

$800  to 
$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

Rent  per  Month. 

All  Families, 
Per  Cent. 

Families  with- 
out Lodgers, 
Per  Cent. 

All  Families, 
Per  Cent. 

Families  with- 
out Lodgers, 
I'cr  (  rut. 

All  Families, 
Per  Cent. 

Families  with- 
out Lodgers, 
Per  Cent. 

All  Families, 
Per  Cent. 

Families  with- 
out Lodgers, 
Per  Cent. 

All  Families, 
Per  Cent. 

Families  with- 
out Lodgers, 
Per  Cent. 

9.6 

9.6 

II. 1 

7-9 

i-7 

i-7 

6.6 

4.4 

$10  and  below  .... 

19.2 

15-4 

19.0 

12.7 

10.3 

10.3 

6, 

6-7 

$12  and  below  

34-6 

26.9 

46.0 

33-3 

2  5-9 

22.4 

20.0 

17.8 

8.0 

4.0 

$14  and  above  .... 

36.5 

21. 1 

44-5 

22.2 

5i-7 

22.4 

66.7 

44-5 

72.0 

40.O 

$15  and  above  

23-1 

"•5 

33-4 

i5-9 

38.0 

i3-8 

46.6 

26.7 

60.0 

32.0 

$16  and  above  .... 

19.2 

7-7 

28.6 

12.7 

29-3 

5-2 

35-6 

15-5 

40. c 

24.O 

$18  and  above  .... 

Ml 

,9 

12.7 

6-3 

21.2 

i-7 

24.4 

11. 1 

24.0 

I2.o 

$20  and  above  .... 

1-9 

1.9 

9-5 

3-2 

8.6 

i-7 

13-3 

6.7 

4.0 

4.0 

*  Percentages  are  reckoned  in  each  income-group  on  the  basis  of  the  total 
number  of  families  in  that  group. 

IO9 


TABLE  48.— LODGERS  IN  RELATION  TO  OVER-CROWDING. 

BER  AND  PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES.— BY  INCOME. 


NUM- 


Income. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

$900  to  $999. 
$1000  to  $1099. 
Total  .... 


$600  to 
$800  to 


$799. 
$899. 


Number  of  Families. 


4>  . 

-9  8 

II 


72 

41 

79 

46 

73 

39 

63 

25 

3i 

 9 

3i8 

160 

151 

87 

73 

39 

94 

34 

17 

26 

25 

!3 
I  2 


93 

43 
25 
25 


if 
i 

II 


14 

20 
16 

9 
6 


65 

34 
16 

i5 


Percentages. 


$5  J 


Over- crowded. 
I  Having  Lodgers. 


24 
33 
34 
21 

39 


29 

28 
34 
27 


•  _.    1  SB 


BE 

ig^li  Bill 

|CU  IPh< 


34 

43 

4i 

36 

67. 

4i 

39 
41 
74 


82 

77 
64 
70 
go 
70 

79 
64 
60 


TABLE  49.— INCREASE  OF  RENT:    MANHATTAN.— BY  DISTRICTS. 


Q 

W  . 
>  K 

g 

Reported  Increase. 

Amount 

of  Increase  Reported. 

0 

2.  < 

> 

Districts  of  Man- 

UMBER 
LIES. 

> 

< 

«  . 

.  Q 

£  w 
0  i. 

Total. 

if. 

0 
0 

hattan. 

Total  N 
Fami 

as 

ll 

UMBER  N 

Mo 

Number 
Familie: 

r  Cent,  of 

r  Cent,  of ' 
Not  Havi 
Moved 

$0.50 

$1.00 

$1.50 

$2.00 

$2.50 

$3.00 

Over  $3 

V 

Pm 

ti 

PL, 

North  

30 

12 

18 

3 

IO 

x7 

3 

East  

49 

7 

42 

25 

51 

60 

3 

8 

4 

9 

1 

84 

16 

68 

36 

43 

53 

16* 

3 

6 

1 

2 

4 

South-west  

24 

3 

21 

9 

38 

43 

•4 

5 

1 

2 

1 

West  

56 

7 

49 

29 

52 

57 

3 

4 

5 

IO 

1 

3 

3t 

243 

45 

198 

102 

42 

52 

10 

36 

13 

27 

4 

5 

7 

*  Including  one  case  at  $1.25.       f  One  case  at  $3.50;  two  cases  at  $4.00. 
J  Three  cases  at  $4.00;  one  case  at  $5.00. 


TABLE  50.— INCREASE  OF  RENT:    MANHATTAN.— BY  MONTHLY 

RENTAL. 


Rent  per  Month. 


$10  and  under. 

$10  to  $12  

$12  to  $14  

$14  to  $16  

$16  to  $18  

Over  $18  


||  J 
;g  wl 

i  53 

ill 


Relative  Increase. 


Total  

*  Including  one  at  $1.25 


3i 
42 

74 

38 
29 

243 


< 

I" 

S 

P 


1! 


13 
24 

31 
19 
6 

9 
102 


fr 


Amount  of  Increase  Reported. 


© 

d 

69 


42 

57 
42 
50 
21 

31 


4? 


44 
73 
47 
59 
33 
45 


53 


§ 


w    e»  w 


6 

io*| 

:? 

2 

6 


36  13 


27 


4  I  24. 

I    !  2% 

It 

_2§ 

5  7 


f  $3.50. 


J  $4.00. 
I  IO 


§  One  case  $4.00;  one  case  $5.00. 


CAR-FARE 


2.  CAR-FARE. 

Closely  allied  to  expenditure  for  rent  is  expenditure  for  car-fare. 
The  general  averages  for  this  item  give  little  information  because 
the  amount  of  car-fare  paid  in  a  given  case  depends  upon  the  dis- 
tance of  the  dwelling  from  the  wage-earner's  place  of  work,  rather 
than  upon  income  or  nationality  or  even  occupation.  It  is  to  be 
expected,  therefore,  that  car-fares  will  bulk  larger,  absolutely 
and  relatively,  in  Brooklyn  and  the  Bronx  than  in  Manhattan. 
Tables  51-53  (pages  1 13-1 14)  show  that  67  per  cent,  of  our  fam- 
ilies outside  of  Manhattan,  and  only  52  per  cent,  of  the  families 
residing  in  Manhattan,  report  expenditure  for  car-fare. 

In  the  elaboration  of  the  returns,  car-fares  for  visiting,  recrea- 
tion, etc.,  have  been  taken  out  of  the  car-fare  account  and  charged 
to  recreation.  Such  car-fares  are  not  considered  in  the  discussion 
of  this  section.  As  to  the  amount  paid,  families  paying  $30  or 
more  constitute  23  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  families  in 
Manhattan,  and  36  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  other  boroughs. 
Those  paying  $20  and  over  constitute  3 1  per  cent,  of  the  families  in 
Manhattan,  and  39  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  other  boroughs. 
It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  a  large  number  of  families  report  no 
expenditure  for  car-fare;  namely, 48  percent,  of  all  in  Manhattan, 
and  33  per  cent,  of  all  in  the  other  boroughs.  This  means  that 
a  large  proportion  even  of  the  workers  who  reside  in  Brooklyn  and 
the  Bronx  are  employed  within  walking  distance  of  their  homes. 
An  examination  of  the  returns  regarding  car-fare  from  the  different 
sections  of  Manhattan  (page  114)  shows  that  families  living  north 
of  14th  street  pay  more  in  car-fare  than  families  in  other  regions, 
while  those  residing  in  the  South-east,  paying  the  highest  rents, 
have  the  smallest  expenditure  for  car-fare.  Or,  by  number  of 
families:  Of  30  families  in  the  North,  60  per  cent,  pay  car-fare; 
of  49  in  the  East,  72  per  cent.;  of  84  in  the  South-east,  35  per 
cent.;  of  24  in  the  South-west,  46  per  cent.;  and  of  56  families  in 
the  West,  61  per  cent,  pay  car-fare. 

Of  the  243  Manhattan  families,  76  report  an  expenditure  of  $20 
and  over  for  car-fares.  This  indicates  that  the  father  usually  rides 
to  his  work.  Of  these  76  families,  17  were  in  our  North  section, 
making  57  per  cent,  of  all  the  families  there;  22  were  in  the  East, 

1 1 1 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


or  45  per  cent,  of  all  families  in  that  section.  In  the  South-east 
were  only  14  of  these  cases,  comprising  17  per  cent,  of  all  families 
in  that  region.  The  same  percentage  prevailed  in  the  South-west, 
while  in  the  West  19,  or  34  per  cent,  of  all  families,  paid  over  §20 
in  car-fare.  That  is  to  say,  the  people  who  live  in  the  Southern 
end  of  the  island  save  in  car-fare  a  part  of  what  they  have  to 
pay  out  in  rent.  A  comparison  of  expenditures  for  car-fare  in 
different  income-groups  and  nationalities  yields  no  significant  re- 
sults. It  is  to  be  observed  that  of  the  25  families  with  incomes 
under  $600,  13  report  payments  for  car-fare,  and  13  of  the  48 
families  with  incomes  of  $1  100  and  above  report  no  expenditure  for 
this  purpose.  Table  51  shows  the  variation  in  car-fare  with 
variations  in  rent.  So  far  as  it  is  possible  to  make  any  general- 
ization from  it,  it  seems  to  show  that  expenditure  for  car-fare  does 
not  fall  off  as  rent  increases.  If  the  line  is  drawn  at  a  $15  rental, 
of  138  families  paying  from  $10.50  to  $1 5.00  a  month,  76  families, 
or  55  per  cent.,  report  car-fare,  as  against  51  percent,  of  the  74 
families  paying  a  rent  of  $15.50  to  $18.00  a  month. 


1 12 


CAR-FARE 


TABLE    51. — CAR-FARE:    MANHATTAN    AND    BROOKLYN.  NUM- 
BER OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING   GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY 
MONTHLY  RENTAL. 


Monthly  Rent. 

Total 
Number  or 
Families. 

Expenditure 

$10  and 

Under. 

$10.50 

to 
$12.50 

$13  to 
$15 

$15.50 

to 
$17.50 

Over 
$17.50 

Per  Cent,  of 
All  Families. 

tor  Car-fare. 

1 

Brooklyn. 

ttan. 

g 

.ttan. 

Brooklyn.  ] 

.ttan. 

1 

Manhattan. 

i 

ittan. 

d 

Manhattan. 

Brooklyn. 

Manha 

re 
1 

3 

Brook 

Manha 

Manha 

Brook 

Brook 

Manha 

Brook 

TTnHpr  ,H5to 

5 

I 

10 

3 

IO 

3 

4 

9 

38 

7 

15-6 

i3»S 

$io  to  $20  

2 

2 

3 

2 

7 

2 

1 

1 

13 

7 

5-3 

i3-S 

$20  to  $30  

5 

1 

8 

1 

2 

5 

20 

2 

8.2 

3-8 

3 

I 

9 

3 

20 

4 

6 

2 

9 

47 

IO 

i9-3 

19.2 

Over  $40  

3 
13 

2 

1 

3 
12 

3 
48 

2 

I 

2 

1 

9 

9 

3-7 

i7-5 

Total  reporting 
car-fare  

6 

28 

12 

14 

4 

24 

1 

127 

35 

Total  number  of 

31 

9 

52 

20 

86 

17 

36 

5 

38 

1 

243 

52 

TABLE    52. — CAR-FARE.    NUMBER    OF    FAMILIES  REPORTING 
GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  BOROUGH. 


Borough. 


Manhattan 

Bronx  

Brooklyn. . 
Queens  


>->tu 


243 
15 
52 


Under 
$10. 


38 

3 
7 
1 


Number  Reporting  Car-fare  of: 


$10 
to 
$20. 


13 


$20 
to 
$30. 


$30 
to 

$40. 


47 
4 

10 
2 


Over 
$40. 


Total. 


Num- 
ber. 


127 

7 
35 


Per 
Cent, 
of  All 
Fam- 
ilies. 


52 
47 
67 
IOO 


8 


113 


•ssiiiui-bj 


-3.rej-.re3 
8upjod3}j  jaqain^ 


lO  rt 


•3JTBJ-XB3 


ssijiurej  jo 
aaquin^ 


•3XBJ-JB3 


3uj;iod3^  asquint 


•ssrjiurej  jo 
a'sqiim^ 


•3J-BJ-JB3 

3uipod3>i  'JU33  J3J 


000 

^006 

OO        10  CO 


-3.rej-.re3 
Suiyods^  jsqumjsj 


CO       CO  CO 


•S31JIUIBJ 

jo  aaquin^  ^jox 


-3.rej-.re3 
8aTjiod3^  -JU3J  J3<i 


q      o  q 

6  10  6 
00      r^.  vo 


5 


8u!jJod3^  J3quinj\r 


saqiuiBj 
jo  asquint  [bjox 


d 

d 

d 

°? 

q 

up 

cl 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

10 

q 

10 

6 

CO 

FUEL  AND  LIGHT 


3.    FUEL  AND  LIGHT. 

The  expenditures  for  fuel  and  light  as  shown  in  the  tables  of 
averages  (Table  54,  page  1 18,  and  Table  15,  page  70)  vary  less  with 
differences  of  income  and  nationality  than  most  of  the  other  items 
of  the  budget.  The  average  for  families  with  $600  incomes  is 
$37.71,  and  for  families  with  $1000  incomes  $46.11;  and  in  no 
case  does  the  average  reach  $50.00  with  incomes  below  $1500  a 
year.  Among  different  nationalities  the  expenditure  varies  more 
widely,  owing,  in  some  instances,  to  the  small  number  of  cases. 
The  Bohemians  and  the  colored  people  show  the  highest  range  of 
expenditure  for  fuel;  the  Italians,  except  in  the  $600  income- 
group,  the  lowest.  Expenditure  for  fuel  and  light  forms  a  con- 
stantly decreasing  per  cent,  of  the  total  expenditures,  being  5.8 
per  cent,  for  incomes  between  $600  and  $700,  and  3.8  per  cent, 
for  incomes  between  $1 100  and  $1200.    (Table  15,  page  70.) 

An  indication  of  the  low  standard  of  living  is  found  in  the 
gathering  of  fuel,  for  the  most  part  wood,  on  the  streets  and  else- 
where free  of  cost  (Table  55,  page  1 19).  One  hundred  and  nine- 
teen of  the  318  families,  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100, 
report  the  gathering  of  fuel  in  this  way.  These  cases  are  most 
frequent  in  families  of  the  lower  income-groups  as  will  be  seen  in 
Table  55  A.  Fifty-one  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  $600  group 
gather  wood  free,  35  per  cent,  in  the  $700  group,  42  per  cent,  in  the 
$800  group,  and  24  and  26  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  $900 
and  $1000  groups  respectively.  By  nationalities,  64  per  cent,  of 
the  Bohemian  families,  54  per  cent,  of  the  Irish,  50  per  cent,  of 
the  colored,  49  per  cent,  of  the  Italians  (including  9  cases  where 
the  man  is  a  fuel-dealer),  and  46  per  cent,  of  the  American  fam- 
ilies gather  free  fuel.  Only  11  per  cent,  of  the  Russians  and  16 
per  cent,  of  the  Austrian  group  report  free  fuel.  In  most  cases 
the  wood  gathered  consists  of  boxes  thrown  out  by  the  mer- 
chants, or  waste  material  from  building  operations.  One  family 
reports  picking  up  coal  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  coal-yard,  and 
the  employees  of  wood-working  establishments  sometimes  bring 
home  more  or  less  fuel.  Considered  by  locality,  the  proportion 
of  wood-gatherers  is  exactly  the  same  in  Manhattan  and  in 
Brooklyn,  or  35  per  cent.  Sixteen  out  of  the  23  families  reported 
from  Bronx  and  Queens  gathered  wood  free. 

115 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


What  is  provided  in  return  for  the  outlay  for  fuel  and  light 
varies  much  more  widely  between  the  individual  families  than  the 
group-average  would  indicate.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  amount 
of  fuel  required,  according  to  the  number  and  size  of  the  rooms 
occupied  and  according  to  the  character  of  the  building.  Families 
living  in  the  Yorkville  district  reported  larger  expenditures  for  fuel 
than  those  living  in  the  more  compactly  built  tenement-houses 
of  the  lower  East  Side.  Individual  economy  and  extravagance 
also  appear  in  the  variation  of  the  expenditures  for  fuel  and  light, 
as  well  as  differences  of  taste  and  habit  as  to  the  amount  of  heat 
and  light  required.  A  comparison  of  the  books  is  the  basis  of  the 
following  estimate  of  the  requirements  for  a  family  occupying 
a  four-room  tenement: 

Three  tons  coal  at  $6.50  $21.00 

Wood  and  matches   3.00 

Gas,  $2.00  a  month  in  summer  and  $1.00  in 
winter   18.00 

$42.00 

Coal  is  bought,  in  a  few  cases,  by  the  ton  or  half-ton,  but  usually 
in  small  quantities — by  the  bag  of  100  pounds  for  35  or  40  cents, 
by  the  bushel  of  75  pounds  at  25  cents,  or  by  the  pail  of  25  pounds 
for  10  cents.  If  the  6000  pounds  (3  tons)  of  coal  in  the  estimate 
given  above  were  bought  by  the  bag  at  40  cents,  or  by  the  pail  at 
10  cents,  it  would  cost  $24.00.* 

*  One  report  of  coal  for  a  family  with  income  of  $600,  occupying  4  rooms  is  as 
follows: 

2  months  in  winter,  3  bushels  a  week  24  bu. 

4  months  in  winter,  2  bushels  a  week  32  " 

6  months  in  summer   6  " 

62  bu. 

Another  family  with  income  of  $650,  occupying  3  rooms,  shows  coal  used  about  5 
months: 

300  lbs.  at  35  cents  for  1  week  in  very  cold  weather. 

200  lbs.  at  35  cents  for  1  week  in  moderately  cold  weather. 

In  summer  bought  by  100  pounds  for  6  weeks,  just  for 

washday,  $x-75 

The  report  for  another  family,  with  an  income  of  $792,  occupying  4  rooms  is: 

For  17  weeks  in  winter  3  bags  a  week,  at  35  cents  $17-85 

For  35  weeks  in  summer  2  pails  a  week  at  11  cents   7.70 

$25-55 

Il6 


FUEL  AND  LIGHT 


In  regard  to  the  kind  of  lighting  provided,  gas  is  the  main  re- 
liance (Tables  56-58,  pages  120-122).  In  no  case  was  electricity 
used.  Seventy-five  out  of  the  grand  total  of  391  families  reported 
no  use  of  gas.  Gas  is  more  largely  used  in  Manhattan  than  in  the 
outlying  boroughs,  15  per  cent,  of  the  Manhattan  families  re- 
porting no  gas,  as  against  29  per  cent,  of  families  in  the  other 
boroughs.  The  families  in  Manhattan  that  did  not  use  gas  are 
almost  all  in  the  income-groups  below  $900.  The  use  of  gas  for 
cooking  is  somewhat  less  general  than  its  use  for  lighting.  Two 
hundred  and  ninety-one  of  the  whole  391  families  use  gas  for  cook- 
ing and  307  of  them  use  gas  for  lighting.  The  use  of  kerosene  is 
reported  by  133  families  of  the  grand  total.  In  many  cases,  of 
course,  its  use  is  auxiliary  to  the  use  of  gas,  but  the  larger  number 
of  cases  are  reported  by  the  poorer  families.  Out  of  the  99  Man- 
hattan families,  for  instance,  which  report  the  use  of  kerosene,  42 
are  families  with  incomes  under  $800  and  only  15  are  families 
with  incomes  above  $1000.  Only  8  families  with  incomes  over 
$900  report  no  gas.  Where  kerosene  is  used  the  average  amount 
is  about  a  gallon  a  week,  costing  from  12  to  14  cents  a  gallon 
and  from  $6  to  $8  for  the  year.  Expenditure  for  gas  is  elimi- 
nated in  "cases  where  kerosene  is  the  only  illuminant.  The  cases 
where  gas  is  used  for  cooking  and  not  for  light  are  extremely  rare. 
The  gas  bills  reported  range  from  $1  to  $2  a  month,  for  the  most 
part,  according  to  season.  There  is  little  variation  among  the 
families  of  different  nationalities  in  regard  to  fuel  and  light,  a 
common  necessity  being  imposed  upon  them  all.  The  Italian 
families  use  wood  in  larger  proportion  than  most  of  the  others, 
even  in  cases  where  it  has  to  be  bought. 


117 


On 
2 

O 
4 

M 
in 

NO 

NO 
4 

* 
4 

co 

in 
4 

5> 

o 

H 

•junouiv 

o» 
in 

ci 
rjr 
iff 

On 

4 
m 

CO 

NO 

On 

NO 

o 

NO 

4 

lO 

o 

00 

o 

On 
<s 
*t 

in 

co 
co 

NO 

•saiiiunjj 
jo  jbquinj^ 

00 

CO 

: 

NO 

M 

NO 

<o 

on 

On 

4 

NO 

in 

NO 

4 

o 

NO 

NO 
4 

00 

4 

If 

NO 

M 

in 

900  to  $S 

•janouiy 

O 

6 

«r 

m 

q 

Cn] 
<* 

vq 
6 

o 

On 
On 

NO 

00 

On 
CO 
CO 

t«» 
NO 

m 

o 

NO 

w 

•S3I|IUIB^ 

jo  iaqum^i 

NO 
M 

m 

On 

On 

NO 

On 
On 

On 

NO 

4 

!>. 

NO 

4 

to 

in 

io 

4 

q 
in 

3 

8 

o 
o 

00 

•junouiv 

3jEJT?J3A^ 

NO 

&y 

NO 

6 
"* 

NO 

(N 

co 

CO 

NO 

M 
m 

co 

CO 
CO 

6 

co 

lO 

NO 
Tj" 

o 
m 

6 

co 

q 

(ft 

•  •sajiiuiBjj 
jo  jaquin^ 

ro 

On 

t-. 

CO 

co 

cs 

M 

ON 

On 
On 

O 
in 

4 

4 

On 

NO 

M 

NO 

oo 
4 

q 
to 

fO 

q 
in 

t> 
(ft 

O 

•junouiy 

O 

00 
CO 

CO 
r-- 

CM 

fl 
CO 

<t 
in 

in 

to 
o 

«*■ 

On 

700  t 

99U.19A^|f 

CO 

to 

CO 

ro 
fO 

ro 
in 

m 
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CO 
CO 

lO 

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NO 

NO 

rn 

(ft 

•sgijiui-B^ 
jo  jbquin^ 

On 

!>. 

O 

BO 

■«t 

On 

ON 

On 

ON 

n 

NO 

Ti- 

4 

oo 

NO 

O 
CO 

co 

q 
in 

oq 
in 

00 

in 

600  to  $e 

•junouiy 

33-BJ3AY 

6 

■a 

ro 

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-* 

o 
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ON 

On 

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CO 

On 
in 

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rO 

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r-^ 
t>. 
to 

•saiiiui-Bj 
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NO 

NO 

O 

n8 


TABLE  55. — FUEL  GATHERED  FREE.  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  RE- 
PORTING AND  PERCENTAGES. — BY  INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 


Families  Gathering  Some  Fuel  Free. 


$600  to 
$699 

$700  to 
$799 

$800  to 
$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

Total. 

Nationality. 

al  Number. 

Number  Gathering 
Fuel  Free. 

al  Number. 

ier  Gathering 
'uel  Free. 

al  Number. 

)er  Gathering 
'uel  Free. 

al  Number. 

Number  Gathering 
Fuel  Free. 

al  Number. 

Number  Gathering 
Fuel  Free. 

.1  Number  of 
families. 

:al  Number 
ring  Fuel  Fiee. 

5er  Cent. 

o 
H 

o 
H 

Numl 

0 
H 

Numl 

0 
H 

0 
H 

Tol 
Gathe: 

ii 

8 

19 

7 

8 

13 
9 

7 

16 

5 

8 

3 

67 

39 

31 
13 

46.3 
33-3 

4 

i 

3 

2 

11 

5 

8 

2 

4 

3 

7 

3 

7 

5 

5 

1 

1 

I 

24 

13 

54-1 

ii 

8 

6 

2 

8 

4 

2 

1 

28 

14 
9 
6 

50.0 
64.1 
10.5 

Bohemian 

4 

2 

3 

2 

3 

3 

4 

2 

14 
57 

Russian  

16 

5 

14 

12 

9 

1 

6 

Austrian,  etc  

6 

2 

9 

2 

9 

1 

7 

1 

32 

5 

15.6 

16 

8* 

14 

8t 

12 

9t 

9 

1 

6 

2 

57 

28 

49.1 

Total.....  

72 

37 

79 

28 

73 

3i 

63 

15 

31 

8 

318 

119 

37-4 

*2  cases,  fuel  dealers.         f4  cases,  fuel  dealers.         Ji  case,  fuel  dealer. 

TABLE  55A.— FUEL  GATHERED  FREE.    SUMMARY  OF  TABLE  55. 

BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Total  Number 
of  Families. 

Total  Number 
Gathering 
Fuel  Free. 

Per  Cent. 

25 

11 

44 

72 

37 

51 

$700  to  $799  

79 

28 

35 

$800  to  $899  

73 

3i 

42 

$900  to  $999  

63 

15 

24 

3i 

8 

26 

48 

10 

21 

Total  

39i 

140 

36 

119 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  56—  FUEL  AND  LIGHT.    USE  OF  GAS  AND  KEROSENE:  MAN- 
HATTAN.—BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

Nationality. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

1      Gas  for 
Light. 

Kerosene. 

No  Gas. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

Gas  for 
Light. 

Kerosene. 

|      No  Gas.  1 

Number  of 

Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

Gas  for 
Light. 

Kerosene.  1 

No  Gas.  I 

United  States  

6 

5 

5 

I 

I 

14 

9 

II 

4 

3 

8 

5 

6 

2 

2 

Teutonic  

2 

2 

I 

I 

7 

3 

6 

I 

1 

8 

7 

7 

4 

Irish  

3 

2 

I 

2 

I 

5 

4 

4 

3 

1 

5 

3 

3 

2 

Colored  

ii 

2 

2 

II 

8 

6 

2 

3 

5 

3 

8 

1 

5 

6 

3 

Bohemian  

4 

4 

4 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

3 

1 

3 

1 

7 

7 

6 

1 

8 

8 

8 

1 

8 

8 

8 

2 

5 

4 

4 

1 

1 

8 

8 

8 

1 

9 

8 

9 

3 

14 

9 

9 

4 

5 

12 

10 

11 

2 

1 

9 

8 

8 

2 

1 

Total  

52 

35 

32 

24 

16 

63 

47 

53 

19 

9 

58 

4i 

49 

20 

8 

Nationality. 


United  States 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian. . . 

Russian  

Austrian,  etc. 
Italian  

Total  


$900  to  $999 


$1000  to  $1099 


Total. 


45  I  4i 


41 


m  \  Ol_5-'3l^3l~'E 


-5 


Ol      o  — 


243 


32 

20 

12 

7 

12 

34 
28 
40 

^5" 


35 
22 
12 
12 
13 
33 
29 
4i 

197 


120 


FUEL  AND  LIGHT 


TABLE  57— FUEL  AND  LIGHT.    USE  OF  GAS   AND  KEROSENE 
BRONX,  BROOKLYN,  AND  QUEENS.— BY  NATIONALITY 
AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 

$700 

ro  $799 

$800 

to  $899 

"NT  a  TTOV  A  T  TTV 
-N  A11U.>  ALII  X 

o  ^ 

a 

<§ 

u  hi] 
o  c 

u 

O  *J 

a 

•j  hi 

O  C3 

a 

S 

Numbe 
Famili 

Gas  p 
Cookir 

Gasi 
Ligh 

Kerose 

o 

o 

Numbe 
Famili 

Gasf 
Cookii 

Gasf 
Ligh 

Kerose 

o 

o 

Numbe 
Famili 

Gas  f 
Cookii 

Gasf 
Ligh 

Kerose 

No  G; 

5 

3 

3 

2 

2 

5 

4 

4 

2 

I 

5 

I 

5 

5 

Teutonic  

2 

2 

2 

i 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Russian  ,  

9 

6 

6 

3 

3 

6 

6 

6 

4 

4 

4 

Austrian,  etc  

i 

i 

i 

i 

I 

i 

Italian  

2 

i 

i 

i 

2 

I 

i 

2 

I 

3 

I 

2 

2 

Total  

20 

ii 

ii 

9 

8 

16 

12 

12 

6 

4 

i5 

7 

8 

7 

7 

$900 

to  $999 

$1000 

to  $1099 

Total 

Nationality. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

Gas  for 
Light. 

|      Kerosene.  | 

No  Gas. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

Gas  for 
Light. 

Kerosene. 

|      No  Gas. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Gas  for 
Cooking. 

Gas  for 
Light. 

Kerosene. 

No  Gas. 

United^States  

5 

I 

2 

3 

3 

3 

2 

2 

I 

I 

23 

IO 

12 

13 

12 

Tev  tonic  

7 

s 

5 

2 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

12 

7 

8 

5 

4 

Irish.  

2 

2 

2 

7 

2 

2 

5 

5 

Russian  

3 

3 

3 

I 

I 

I 

23 

20 

20 

3 

3 

2 

2 

2 

Italian  

i 

I 

I 

8 

3 

2 

6 

4 

Total  

18 

9 

io 

8 

8 

6 

5 

5 

2 

I 

75 

44 

46 

32 

28 

121 


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122 


FOOD 


4.  FOOD. 

1 .  Food  as  a  Factor  in  the  Budget. — Food  is  much  the  largest 
item  in  the  family  budget,  comprising  nearly  half  of  the  total 
outlay.  (See  Table  59,  page  137,  and  Table  15,  page  70.)  The 
average  amount  spent  for  food  rises  from  $290. 10  per  annum 
for  the  $600  families  to  $451.46  for  the  $1000  group.  But, 
although  the  average  amount  increases  by  about  $50  with  each 
$100  added  income,  the  percentage  of  total  expenditures  remains 
almost  constant  at  about  45  per  cent.  When  a  wider  range  of 
income  is  included,  the  percentage  variations  are  greater.  Thus, 
the  8  families  with  average  income  of  $452.38  spend  only  40.8 
per  cent,  of  it  for  food;  the  17  families  with  incomes  be- 
tween $500  and  $600  spend  44.4  per  cent,  of  their  money  for  food. 
Among  the  larger  incomes,  the  percentage  remains  close  to  45  for 
the  $1100  and  $1200  groups,  and  begins  to  fall  only  with  the 
families  whose  income  is  $1300,  where  it  is  42.6.  For  the 
6  families  with  incomes  of  $1500  the  percentage  is  36.8.  These 
figures  would  seem  to  indicate  that  not  until  the  family  is  able 
to  spend  well  beyond  $1000  does  it  satisfy  its  wants  for  food  upon  a 
smaller  proportion  of  its  total  income  than  when  it  had  only  $600 
or  $700  for  all  purposes.  Whether  this  is  due  to  insufficient 
nutrition  on  lower  incomes,  or  to  indulgence  of  more  expensive 
tastes  as  resources  increase,  we  may  be  able  at  a  later  point  to 
suggest.  Certainly,  the  point  of  diminishing  percentage  of  ex- 
penditure for  food  is  placed  much  higher  in  the  income  scale  than 
in  the  cases  on  which  Engel  based  his  well-known  generalizations. 

A  comparison  of  nationalities  suggests  that  the  families  which 
spend  the  largest  proportion  of  their  income  for  food  are  those 
which  pay  the  smallest  share  of  it  for  rent.  The  Italians  and 
Bohemians,  whose  rent-expense  is  relatively  low,  expend  in  the 
various  income-groups  from  45  to  50  per  cent,  of  their  total  outlay 
upon  food;  while  for  the  colored  people  and  the  Russians,  who  pay 
heavy  rents,  the  percentage  range  is  between  40  and  45  per  cent., 
rising  to  45.2  per  cent,  for  the  Russians  with  incomes  of  $800, 
and  falling  to  37.7  per  cent,  for  colored  families  in  the  same 
income-group. 

The  expenditures  for  different  classes  of  food  have  been  ar- 

123 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


ranged  by  income-groups  and  nationalities,  and  the  percentage 
of  total  expenditures  for  food-materials  calculated  (Tables  60  and 
61,  pages  138-140).  The  percentage  calculation  is  on  the  basis 
of  the  sum  only  of  the  items  mentioned,  excluding  meals  away  from 
home  and  ice.  The  summary  by  incomes  shows  a  tendency  to 
spend  in  increasing  proportion  for  meats  as  income  rises,  and  to 
diminish  relative  expenditure  for  bread  and  other  cereal  foods. 
For  eggs  and  dairy  products  and  for  alcoholic  drinks  the  percentage 
fluctuations  seem  erratic.  For  meats  and  fish  the  percentage 
is  29.4  for  $600  incomes,  and  32.1  for  incomes  in  the  $1000  group. 
For  cereals  the  results  are  21  per  cent,  for  the  $600  families, 
and  17.3  percent,  for  §1000  families.  For  eggs  and  dairy  pro- 
ducts the  percentages  vary  from  19.8  (§700  incomes)  to  23.3 
($900  incomes).  For  sugar,  tea,  and  coffee  the  percentage  re- 
mains not  far  from  constant  at  8  per  cent.  In  fruits  and  vege- 
tables there  is  a  slight  increase,  from  13.8  per  cent,  among  the 
$600  families  to  14.2  per  cent,  among  those  with  incomes  of  §1000 
to  $1100.  For  alcoholic  drinks,  the  percentage  ranges  between 
6  and  7.4  per  cent. 

The  varieties  of  national  custom  in  regard  to  diet  are  reflected 
only  slightly  in  these  tables  of  averages.  It  appears  that  the 
Russian  and  Austrian  Jews  report  the  largest  percentage  expen- 
diture for  meat,  and  the  Italians  the  smallest.  In  the  matter  of 
cereals  and  vegetables  the  tables  are  reversed,  the  Italians  showing 
the  greatest  percentage  and  the  Russians  and  Austrians  the  least. 
This  corresponds  with  the  Italians'  well  known  dependence  on 
macaroni  and  dried  beans.  For  the  16  American  families  with 
incomes  between  §900  and  $1000,  the  averages  and  the  percen- 
tages are  as  follows: 


Average 
Expenditure. 


Percentage  of  all  Ex- 
penditures for 
Food  Proper. 


Meats  and  fish  

Eggs,  butter,  milk,  etc.. . 

Cereals  , 

Vegetables  and  fruit  

Sugar,  tea,  coffee,  etc  

Alcoholic  drinks  at  home 


$127.56 
83.43 

72.45 
65.49 
31.63 


21.2 


32.5 


12.01 


392.57 


100.0 


124 


FOOD 


The  constituents  of  the  family  dietary  are  more  clearly  exhibited 
in  summaries  of  the  reports  from  typical  families  which  may  be 
found  at  the  end  of  the  present  section  (page  154). 

2.  Inadequacy  in  Kind  and  Amount  of  Food. — In  order  to 
judge  how  far  the  food  provided  is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  a 
family,  the  food-stuffs  consumed  should  be  analyzed  and  the 
amount  of  nutritive  value  contained  in  the  various  constituents 
should  be  calculated  and  compared  with  the  established  standards 
of  what  is  needed  to  maintain  physical  efficiency.  In  order 
to  compare  families  composed  of  persons  of  varying  age  and  sex, 
tables  have  been  worked  out  showing  the  proportionate  amount 
to  be  assigned  to  each  person,  as  compared  with  the  requirements 
for  an  adult  man.  The  scale  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  is  as  follows :  * 

An  adult  woman  requires . . 

A  boy  of  1 5  to  1 6   

A  boy  of  13  to  14   

A  boy  of  12  

A  boy  of  10  to  1 1   

A  girl  of  15  to  16   

A  girl  of  13  to  14   

A  girl  of  10  to  12   

A  child  from  6  to  9  

A  child  from  2  to  5  

A  child  under  2  

By  the  application  of  this  scale  the  equivalent  of  each  family  in 
"units"  of  an  adult  man  has  been  figured  out  and  applied  under 
the  head  "number  of  units"  in  the  comprehensive  tables  of 
averages  (Tables  15  and  16,  pages  70-74,  and  in  Table  62,  page 
140). 

In  order  to  secure  evidence  as  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the 
food  reported  by  the  families  interviewed,  100  schedules  selected 
so  as  to  represent  all  nationalities  and  income-groups  were  sent  for 
examination  to  Dr.  Frank  P.  Underhill,  assistant  professor  of 
Physiological  Chemistry  in  Yale  University.  While  the  returns 
were  not  stated  with  scientific  exactness  as  to  the  amount  of 
each  article  consumed,  and  no  allowance  could  be  made  for 


,8  as  much 


as  an  adult  man 

<<  («  n 

<  (  t  <  t( 

a  11  a 

n  tt  a 

tt  tt  a 

a  n  it 

tt  tt  tt 

ti  a  tt 


*  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.    Farmer's  Bulletin,  No.  142,  p.  33. 

125 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

wastes,  a  rough  approximation  to  the  nutritive  value  of  the  dietary 
was  calculated,  which  is  not  without  value.  Professor  Under- 
bill's report  may  be  found  in  Appendix  VI  (page  319).  On 
the  basis  of  the  prices  prevailing  in  the  summer  of  1907,  Dr.  Under- 
bill found  that  the  families  which  spent  at  the  rate  of  less  than 
22  cents  per  man  per  day  were  not  receiving  enough  food  to 
maintain  physical  efficiency*;  that  is,  for  less  than  this  amount 
the  family  did  not  purchase  materials  sufficient  to  provide  a 
minimum  allowance  of  100  to  125  grams  of  protein  and  2500 
to  3000  calories  of  fuel  for  the  tissues.f 

The  detailed  figures  for  two  schedules  analyzed  by  Dr.  Under- 
bill may  be  found  on  page  323.  For  all  the  families  included 
in  the  report  a  calculation  was  made  of  the  expenditure  reduced 
to  terms  of  "cents  per  man  per  day." 

This  method  of  calculation  may  be  easily  illustrated  by  an 
example:  A  certain  family  consists  of  father,  mother,  a  girl  of 
4  years,  a  boy  of  3  and  a  baby  under  2.  The  father  buys  lunch 
6  days  in  the  week.  The  calculation  therefore  runs,  applying  the 
equivalents  given  on  page  125: 


1  man        15  meals  per  week  15.0 

1  woman    21  meals,  equivalent  for  man  to  21  X  0.8  meals  per  week   16.8 

1  boy         21     "  "  "      "    "21X0.4     "     "      "   8.4 

1  girl         21     "  "  "     "    "21X0.4     "      "      "   8.4 

1  child       21     "  "  "     "    "21X0.3      "     "      "   6.3 

Total  number  of  meals,  on  basis  of  consumption  of  adult  man  54.9 


This  total  is  equivalent,  counting  3  meals  per  day,  to  meals  for  i 
man  for  18  days.  The  weekly  expenditure  for  food  foots  up  $4.24; 
that  is,  to  meet  a  demand  for  food  equivalent  to  the  needs  of  one 
man  for  18  days,  this  family  spends  §4.24,  or,  dividing  $4.24  by  18, 
spends  23.6  cents  per  man  per  day.    This  calculation  makes  it 

*Dr.  Atwater,  from  data  gathered  1896-7,  estimated  the  cost  at  23-25  cents  per 
man  per  day.  (U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture.  Bulletin  of  Experiment  Stations  No. 
1 16,  pp.  74,  75.)  Of  63  families,  tabulated  by  Dr.  Underhill  as  adequately  nourished, 
two  spent  22  cents  per  man  per  day;  two  less  than  22  cents.  Of  37  tabulated 
by  him  as  under-nourished,  6  spent  22  cents  per  man  per  day,  7  over  22  cents. 

fThe  non-technical  reader  may  be  reminded  that  one  calorie  is  the  amount  of 
heat  necessary  to  raise  one  kilogram  of  water  one  degree  centigrade  (1.8  degrees  Fah- 
renheit) in  temperature.  Into  the  disputed  questions  as  to  the  minimum  allow- 
ance of  protein  for  tissue-building  and  of  fats  and  carbo-hydrates  for  fuel,  it  is  not 
the  purpose  of  this  report  to  enter.  But  the  amounts  as  given  will  be  recognized 
as  conservative  as  compared  with  the  standard  set  by  most  dietary  experts. 

126 


FOOD 


possible  to  compare  families  without  regard  to  differences  in 
number  and  age  of  their  members,  and  to  apply  a  uniform 
standard  to  them  all.  The  tabulation  of  the  average  expenditure 
per  man  per  day  is  given  in  Table  64  (page  141). 

Applying  the  minimum  suggested  by  Dr.  Underhill,  22  cents 
per  man  per  day,  we  have  the  result  shown  in  Table  63  (page 
141).    The  showing  by  income-groups  is  as  follows: 

Under-fed  Families . 
(22  cents  per  man  per 
Total  Number        day  and  under.) 


Income.                     of  Families.  Number.  Per  Cent. 

I400  to  $599                    25  19  76 

600  to  799  151  48  32 

800  to  899                   73  16  22 

900  to  1099                   94  8  9 

1 100  and  over                    48  o  0 


Diagram  i  i. — Number  of  under-fed  families  in  each  of  the  principal  income-groups. 

127 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


This  means  that  with  less  than  $600  to  spend  for  all  purposes,  an 
adequate  food-supply  is  not  provided,  and  that  on  from  $600  to 
$800  incomes  1  family  in  3  is  under-fed,  while  less  than  1  in  10  of 
the  families  having  $900  and  f  1000  to  spend  fell  short  of  the 
minimum  for  food.  Of  the  nationalities  represented,  the  pro- 
portion of  under-fed  was  greatest  among  the  Russians,  where  more 
than  half  of  the  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $800, 
spent  less  than  the  minimum  for  food.  For  the  318  families 
with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100  the  figures  are  as  follows: 

Number  of       Under-fed  Families. 


Nationality.                   Families.  Number.     Per  Cent. 

United  States   67  10  14.9 

Teutonic   39  8  20.5 

Irish   24  2  8.3 

Colored,   28  8  28.6 

Bohemian   14  4  28.6 

Russian   57  26  45.5 

Austrian,  etc   32  11  34.5 

Italian   57  3  5.3 


318  72  22.7 


Diagram  12. — Number  of  under-fed  families  in  each  of  the  nationality-groups. 

128 


FOOD 


The  small  proportion  among  the  Italians  is  due  in  part  to  the  fact 
that  the  Italian  families  reported  on  consist,  very  many  of  them,  of 
parents  and  two  young  children.  The  large  proportion  of  income 
devoted  to  buying  food  by  the  Italians  has  already  been  pointed 
out  (page  123). 

By  occupations,  the  three  groups  selected  for  comparison  show  a 
larger  proportion  of  under-fed  families  than  the  whole  mass.  The 
figures,  for  incomes  between  $600  and  $1100,  are  as  follows: 

Total  Number      Under-fed  Families: 


Occupation.            of  Families.  Number.  Per  Cent. 

Garment-workers  45  16  33.3 

Laborers  35  11  31.4 

Teamsters,  etc  26  8  30.7 


106  35  33 

The  same  distribution  of  these  under-fed  families  among  the  income- 
groups  is  found  that  appears  in  regard  to  the  families  as  a  whole. 
Ten  of  the  16  under-fed  among  the  garment-workers  have  less  than 
$800  income;  9  of  the  1 1  under-fed  laborers'  families,  and  all  of  the 
8  under-fed  among  the  teamsters,  have  incomes  under  $800. 

The  analysis  of  all  under-fed  families  with  reference  to  sources 
of  income  (Table  65,  page  142)  shows  that  the  scanty  provision  of 
food  is  more  frequent  among  families  with  composite  incomes 
than  among  families  supported  by  the  father  alone.  Of  the  149 
families  (out  of  3 1 8)  which  are  supported  by  father  alone,  30  families, 
or  20  per  cent.,  are  under-fed,  as  against  42  under-fed  families 
out  of  the  169  with  composite  incomes,  or  24.8  per  cent.  That 
the  scant  provision  of  food  is  often  a  necessity,  if  expenditures 
are  to  be  brought  within  income,  appears  from  noting  the 
relation  of  under-fed  families  to  the  families  at  large  in  the  matter 
of  surplus  or  deficiency  in  the  annual  budget  (Tables  66  and  67, 
pages  143-144).  Of  all  the  318  families,  116  families,  or  36.5 
per  cent.,  report  a  surplus  (Table  120,  page  236).  Of  the  72 
under-fed  families,  36  families,  or  50  per  cent.,  report  a  surplus. 
Eighty-six  families,  or  27  per  cent,  of  the  total  318  families, 
report  a  deficit,  and  116  report  an  even  balance,  within  $25. 
Of  the  72  under-fed,  only  9  families,  or  12.5  per  cent.,  report  a 
deficit,  and  27  families,  or  37.5  per  cent.,  report  an  even  balance. 
9  129 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


One  other  point  that  should  be  considered  with  reference  to 
these  under-fed  families  is  the  relation  of  deficiency  of  nutrition 
to  the  size  of  the  family.  In  regard  to  this  point,  the  following 
data  are  available.  As  appears  from  Table  62  (page  140),  the 
number  of  "units"  in  the  average  of  all  the  318  families  is  3.5. 
By  number  of  units  is  meant,  as  already  explained,  the  number 
of  full-grown  men  whose  food-requirements  would  be  equal  to 
those  of  the  given  family.  The  average  number  of  "units"  of 
the  62  under-fed  families  is  3.85,  as  compared  with  the  average 
of  3.5  for  all  families.  Comparing  income-groups  and  sources 
of  income  with  reference  to  this  point,  the  results  are  even  more 
suggestive,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 


Average  Number  of  Units. 

Number  of  Families. 

$600 

$700 

$800 

$900 

$1000 

All 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

In- 

$699 

$799 

$899 

$999 

$1099 

comes. 

26  (Families  supported  by  father  alone.) 

3-5 

3-6 

3-7 

4.0 

3-6 

36  (Families  with  composite  income)  . . 

3-8 

4.2 

4.0 

5-4 

4-x 

4-i 

62  (All  under-fed  families)  

3-6 

4.0 

3-9 

5-i 

4-1 

3-85 

318  (All  families)   

3-3 

3-5 

3-5 

3-6 

3-7 

3-5 

By  income: 


Average  Number  of  Units. 

Income. 

Total  Number 

Number 

of  Families. 

Under-fed. 

Under-fed 

All  Families. 

Families. 

$600-  $799  . . . 

151 

42 

3-4 

3-8 

$800-  $899  . . . 

73 

13 

3-5 

3-9 

$900-$ 1 099  . . . 

94 

7 

3-7 

4-7 

For  this  comparison  the  10  families  with  expenditure  of  exactly 
22  cents  per  man  per  day  are  omitted,  leaving  62  families  spend- 
ing 21  cents  and  under.  These  figures  indicate  that  the  increase  of 
expenditure  for  food  does  not  keep  pace  with  the  increase  of 
demand  for  it  as  children  grow  older,  even  though  the  income 
be  pieced  out  by  additions  from  lodgers  and  by  the  earnings  of 
mother  and  children.  It  is  significant  that  although  few  under- 
go 


FOOD 


fed  families  are  found  in  the  higher  income-groups,  the  cases 
that  do  occur  show  the  need  of  an  exceptionally  large  amount  of 
food.* 

'Reviewing  the  causes  for  insufficient  provision  of  food  as  sug- 
gested by  the  statistics  of  the  comparisons,  we  have  discovered 
that  four  circumstances  frequently  attend  the  families  that  are  un- 
der-fed. These  circumstances  are,  first,  a  larger  number  of  mouths 
to  be  fed,  or  rather,  a  larger  food-necessity  to  be  supplied;  second,  a 
larger  dependence  on  other  resources  than  the  wages  of  the  father; 
third,  a  desire  to  save  money  even  at  cost  of  inadequate  nutrition; 
fourth,  a  low  family  income.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that  the 
last  mentioned  cause,  low  income,  is  in  a  sense  inclusive  of  most  of 
the  others.  Excluded  from  this  enumeration  is  the  lack  of  economy 
in  management,  and  of  wisdom  in  the  purchase  of  food,  but  even 
with  the  best  economy  the  other  causes  do  not  cease  to  operate. 
In  a  few  of  the  cases  classified  as  under-fed  there  is  evidence  of 
exceptional  expenditure  for  drink,  but  the  number  of  these  cases 
is  too  small  to  overshadow  the  causes  already  mentioned.  I 

3.  Items  of  Detail. — Some  interesting  side-lights  are  tnrown 
on  the  subject  by  the  returns  regarding  certain  more  or  less  sig- 
nificant items  of  detail  in  the  food-budget.  Frequency  in  food 
purchases,  meals  away  from  home,  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks, 


*  Pursuing  the  same  analysis  on  the  basis  of  nationality,  the  following  results 
appear : 


Nationality. 

Income  $600  to  $699. 

Number  Families. 

Average  Number  Units. 

Total. 

Under-fed. 

All. 

Under-fed. 

U.  S.,  Teutonic,  Irish  

Russian,  Austrian  and  Bohemian  

U.  S.,  Teutonic,  Irish  

Russian,  Austrian  and  Bohemian  

12 
24 

3-4 
3-5 

3-3 
3-9 

Income  $900  to  $1099. 

49 

27 

1 
4 

3-6 
4.0 

4-  3 

5-  i 

131 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


the  kind  of  milk  used,  the  use  of  ice  and  refrigerators,  dependence 
upon  the  baker  for  bread,  are  the  matters  included  under  this  head. 

Dependence  on  Baker. — Taking  the  last  item  first,  it  is  sufficient 
in  a  word  to  say  that  New  York  families  such  as  those  under  con- 
sideration universally  buy  bread.  Only  26  families  out  of  318  re- 
ported making  bread  at  home  for  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  year.' 
Eight  of  these  were  Italian  families,  6  Russian  and  5  colored. 
Among  the  Italian  families  the  custom  prevails  of  mixing  the 
bread  at  home  and  taking  it  to  a  bakery  to  be  baked  at  a  charge 
of  10  cenis  a  week.  The  contrast  in  this  regard  with  families  out- 
side of  New  York  City  is  striking.  Out  of  19  families  in  Syracuse, 
with  incomes  between  $500  and  $1650,  17  reported  making  bread 
at  home.  Seven  out  of  10  in  Richfield  Springs  made  bread  at 
home. 

Frequency  0}  Food  Purchase. — In  regard  to  the  frequency  of  the 
purchase  of  food,  the  questions  of  the  schedule  did  not  bring  out 
answers  as  definite  as  were  desired.  Most  families  buy  their  sup- 
plies from  day  to  day  in  very  small  quantities,  partly  from  the 
lack  of  facility  for  storing  and  keeping  food,  and  partly  from  the 
lack  of  money  enough  at  one  time  to  enable  them  to  buy  any  large 
amount.  Many  families  reported  buying  staple  articles,  like  flour 
and  sugar,  once  a  week;  but  mention  is  equally  frequent  of  pur- 
chasing butter  by  the  quarter-pound,  potatoes  by  the  pound,  and 
other  supplies  by  the  nickel's-worth.  The  nature  of  the  material 
did  not  seem  to  warrant  the  effort  to  make  statistical  tables  of 
these  data. 

Meals  Away  from  Home. — Tables  68-70  (pages  145-146)  show  that 
136  of  the  318  families  reported  expenditure  for  meals  away  from 
home.  Expenditure  for  this  purpose  is  more  frequent  in  the  case 
of  families  having  children  at  work.  Only  38  per  cent,  of  the  149 
families  where  the  father's  earnings  constitute  the  whole  income, 
report  meals  away  from  home,  while  50  per  cent,  of  the  86 
families  where  other  members  are  wage-earners  report  expendi- 
ture for  this  purpose.  Of  the  various  nationalities,  the  expendi- 
ture for  lunches  is  most  frequent  among  the  American  families, 
54  per  cent,  of  whom  spend  money  for  this  purpose.  Only  21 
per  cent,  of  the  colored  families  and  32  per  cent,  of  the  Italian 
families  report   such   expenditure.    In  the  three  occupations 

132 


FOOD 


classified  separately,  38  per  cent,  of  the  laborers,  50  per  cent,  of 
the  teamsters  and  53  per  cent,  of  the  garment-makers  bought 
lunches.  In  certain  occupations  one  or  more  meals  are  furnished 
free  to  employees.  Fourteen  such  cases  were  counted  among  the 
318  families,  8  being  bartenders,  cooks  and  waiters,  and  3  drivers 
of  provision-wagons.  Location  of  families  with  reference  to  place 
of  work  is,  of  course,  a  determining  factor  in  regard  to  the  purchase 
of  meals,  but  the  classification  by  boroughs  does  not  bring  out 
this  relation.  Forty-four  per  cent,  of  the  Manhattan  families 
and  40  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  other  boroughs  report  expendi- 
ture for  meals  away  from  home. 

In  the  matter  of  income  there  is  a  noticeable  increase  in  the 
amount  paid  for  lunches  as  the  income  increases.  This  appears 
in  the  following  table : 

Total  Number  of 

Number  Families  Reporting 

of  Meals  away  Average 

Income.  Families.        from  Home.  Expenditure. 

$500  tO  $699  72  22  $34.48 

700  to    799  79  42  41  .87 

800  to  899  73  31  42 . 87 

900  to  999  63  28  5 1  . 08 

x 000  to  1099  31  l3  65.06 

318  136 

Fifteen  of  25  families,  with  incomes  between  $400  and  $600,  spend 
on  the  average  $29.29  for  lunch,  and  26  of  48  families,  with  in- 
comes of  $  1 1 00  and  over,  report  spending  $7 1 .36  each  on  the  average 
for  this  purpose.  In  Tables  69  and  70  (page  146)  the  increase 
in  the  amount  expended  for  lunches  with  increase  of  income,  and 
also  its  relation  to  the  composition  of  the  family  income,  is  shown 
under  groups  according  to  the  daily  expenditure  per  family. 

Alcoholic  Drinks. — The  expenditure  for  drinks  was  divided  in  the 
schedule.  The  cost  of  alcoholic  liquors  drunk  at  home  was  in- 
cluded under  the  specification  of  food;  the  cost  of  drinks  away 
from  home  was  put  with  the  miscellaneous  expenditures.  The 
result  was  that  a  fairly  complete  report  regarding  liquors  drunk 
at  home  was  received,  inasmuch  as  the  families  regarded  this 
item  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  felt  no  more  reticence  about  it 

133 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


than  about  any  other  detail.  What  was  drunk  away  from  home, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  considered  as  a  more  personal  matter,  and 
the  information  was  not  as  readily  secured.  When  the  mother 
answered  the  questions  she  often  knew  only  that  she  was  in  the 
habit  of  giving  her  husband  perhaps  $i  a  week  for  spend- 
ing money,  and  that  out  of  it  he  paid  for  what  he  drank,  along 
with  other  incidentals.  It  may  safely  be  assumed  that  the  ex- 
penditure for  drinks  away  from  home,  as  reported,  did  not  exceed 
the  actual  amount. 

In  regard  to  the  use  of  alcoholic  drinks  at  home  there  is  a  marked 
difference,  among  the  nationalities  represented,  in  the  proportion 
of  families  reporting  expenditure.  Table  71  (page  147)  shows 
that  all  of  the  Bohemian  families,  and  98  per  cent,  of  the  Italian 
families  report  some  expenditure  for  alcoholic  drinks;  only  the 
American  families  report  this  expenditure  in  the  case  of  less  than 
two-thirds  of  the  families,  the  percentage  of  the  American  fam- 
ilies being  46.3.  The  amounts  expended  are  in  many  of  these 
cases  small,  as  will  be  seen  in  Tables  71-73  (pages  147-149). 
Ninety  of  the  243  families  expending  money  for  drinks,  spend 
less  than  $20  a  year.  More  than  half  of  the  Russian  families 
spend  less  than  $20.  On  the  other  hand,  11  out  of  14  Bohemian 
families,  19  out  of  28  Teutonic  families  and  9  out  of  17  Irish 
families  that  expend  for  this  purpose,  spend  more  than  $30  a  year. 

Table  74  (page  149)  shows  the  increase  in  expenditure  for  drink 
with  increase  of  income.  The  actual  amount  (average  expendi- 
ture of  the  families  using  alcoholic  drinks)  increases  from  $23.23 
in  the  $600  income-group  to  $37.03  in  the  $1000  income-group. 
If  to  the  expenditure  reported  for  drinks  at  home  the  expenditure 
for  alcoholic  drinks  away  from  home  be  added,  and  the  totals  in 
each  income-group  divided  by  the  number  of  families  using  alco- 
holic drinks,  the  average  total  expenditure  by  income-groups  is  as 
follows,  together  with  the  percentage  of  the  average  total  income 
which  goes  for  this  purpose: 


»34 


FOOD 


Average 

Expenditure  for  Per  Cent. 

Income.  Alcoholic  Drinks,  of  Income. 

$400  to  $599  f  18.47  2-7 

600  to   699   27-25  4- 2 

700  to  799   32. 52  4.4 

800  to  899   37  65  4.4 

900  to  999   36.36  3.9 

1000  to  1099   50.67  4.9 

1 100  to  1 199   59.96  5.2 


This  table  suggests  that  a  rise  in  the  standard  of  living  to  certain 
families  means,  among  other  things,  an  increased  indulgence  in 
intoxicants. 

Milk. — Some  indication  of  the  quality  of  the  milk  used  may  be 
found  in  the  price  paid  for  it.  Ordinary  "loose"  milk  at  the  gro- 
cery and  provision  stores  was  sold  for  5  and  6  cents  a  quart  during 
the  summer  of  1907.  The  bottled  milk,  complying  with  the 
sanitary  requirements,  was  sold  for  8  cents  a  quart  bottle. 
Condensed  milk  at  10  cents  a  can  was  not  infrequently  used,  in  a 
few  cases  to  the  exclusion  of  fresh  milk.  The  classification  of 
families  by  nationalities  and  income  with  reference  to  the  price 
paid  for.  milk  will  be  found  in  Tables  75  and  76  (pages  1 50-1 51). 
Seventeen  families,  9  of  them  under-fed,  reported  4-cent  milk, 
the  quality  of  which  may  be  inferred  from  the  price.  One  hun- 
dred and  sixty-six  families,  or  52  per  cent.,  reported  5-cent 
milk;  41,  or  13  per  cent.,  reported  6-cent  milk;  78,  or  24.5  per 
cent.,  reported  8-cent  milk;  13,  condensed  milk  only.  Three 
families  reported  no  milk  used.  Eleven  of  the  4-cent  cases  were 
in  families  with  incomes  under  $800.  We  should  expect  to  find 
5-cent  milk  less  frequent  and  8-cent  milk  more  frequent  as 
the  income  increases,  but  the  figures  show  no  such  tendency. 
About  one-quarter  of  the  families  in  each  income-group  use  the 
bottled  milk,  and  about  two-thirds  use  the  loose  milk  at  5  and  6 
cents  a  quart.  An  extraordinary  proportion  of  the  Italian 
families  (33  out  of  57)  report  the  use  of  bottled  milk,  while  only 
4  out  of  57  Russian  families  use  it.  Eight  of  the  13  families  de- 
pending on  condensed  milk  are  American. 

Ice  and  Refrigerators. — (See  Tables  77  and  78,  pages  152-153.) 
Only  41  of  the  318  families  report  no  expenditure  for  ice, 

135 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


so  that  its  use  may  be  considered  a  part  of  the  accepted  standard 
for  New  York  City.  The  amount  expended  increases  on  the 
average  from  $4.64  for  the  $600  families  to  $7.80  for  the  $1000 
families,  or  to  $9,21  for  the  families  with  incomes  of  $1100  and 
over.  Classified  on  the  basis  of  the  amount  expended,  64  per  cent, 
of  the  $600  families  pay  not  more  than  $5.00  a  year  for  ice. 
Forty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  $800  families  and  70  per  cent,  of  the 
$1000  families  pay  for  ice  $5.00  a  year  or  more.  An  expenditure 
of  less  than  $1.00  is  reported  by  21  families,  15  of  them  having 
incomes  of  less  than  §800.  Twenty-five  of  the  41  families  with- 
out ice  have  incomes  under  $800. 

Refrigerators  are  found  in  more  than  four-fifths  of  the  families, 
or  in  81  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and 
$800,  and  in  90  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  higher  incomes.  In 
some  cases  it  is  reported  that  the  ice  is  kept  in  a  tub;  in  some  cases 
an  ice-box  is  reported,  which  is  often  hardly  better  than  the  tub; 
but  in  the  majority  of  cases  the  refrigerator  serves  as  a  place  for 
keeping  perishable  food  as  well  as  for  keeping  the  ice  itself. 


136 


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»37 


Per 
Cent. 

N  1/)  !>.  O         M  tO  N 
N   COCO  t~~-    !   NnO  to 
n  (N        CO  CO  N 

$1000  to 
$1099 

ro           w      vO  OO  io 
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NO    <N    CO  M      J   b«  H  N 
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Per 
Cent. 

toO  h  O  -+  CO  On  On 

n  6  oVco  h  4oi  ^ 

co  co  N  Cl  co  co  co  O 

$900  to 
$999 

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LO        CO    <N  CO    UT)t>.  H 

N  N  rj-  CO    ^"  °0  WH 
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Per 
Cent. 

unco  to  m      ch  oo  to 
coco  co  -f     to  r>  6 

CON    CO  CO  <N    CON  CO 

$800  to 
$899 

CO   NrtOO    CON  N 

q  no  co  t--  r^-  q  Noq 
n  n     t^^d  co  6  6 

N    ON  ON  ON  ON  M    ON  M 

Per 
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too  o  n  n  tj-  \n  co 

COO  fOlOHOO 
COCON    CON  COCON 

o 

Tj-  LOCO   O   ON  1^-00  N 

n  co  q  on^-m  n  to 

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Per 
Cent. 

O   CO  O   coO  N  O  CO 
ON  ON  t-^CO  rONVOvd 
NNNNNCOCON 

$600  to 
$699 

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CNLoqcoNcsqq 
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CM    LOCO    CM  ON 

novOno  q 
rj-OO  no  no  co 
N  O  fO  N  h 

o 

Per 
Cent. 

ION  t)-  O  « 

vd  no  nno  t> 

Alcohi 

Average. 

$18.06 
20.93 
24.68 
22.91 
29.62 

Sugar,  Etc. 

Per 
Cent. 

0  co  to  q  0 
00  06  06  00  00 

Average. 

00  00  rt  cm  ^ 
m  1000  6  ^ 

N    N    M  fOfO 

Vegetables  and 
Fruits. 

Per 
Cent. 

Average. 

to  M   NO  O 

CO  CO  rf  rj-OO 
co  rt  rj-  to  to 
00 

t/5 
IS 

Per 
Cent. 

O  CM^NC*) 

H   OnOO   N-  N- 
W    M    H    M  M 

Cerea 

Average. 

00    M    CI    rt  CO 

N  w  comO  m 
toNO  no  O  N 
%0 

ilk, 

Per 
Cent. 

vq  00  cm  «h 

H  do  f^M 
«  h  in  m  n 

^  H 
wW 
o 
o 

W 

Average. 

tO  IN    M    ON  tO 

CO  m  vonO  co 
On  H   N  N  N 
10  NO  NO  00  CO 

Q 

Z 

Per 
Cent. 

rt  Tj-NO  CO  H 
On  m    H    6  CN 
<N   CO  CO  CO  CO 

Meats  , 
Fish 

Average. 

On  O  to  N00 
to  On  CO  N  N« 
O  NO   to  to  <N 
CO   On  O    M  CO 

M    M  M 

Num- 
ber 

Fam- 
ilies. 

CM  On  CO  CO  h 
N  N  NO  CO 

On  On  On  On  On 
On  On  On  On  On 
no  N00  On  O 

Incc 

$600  to 
$700  to 
$800  to 
$900  to 

$1000  to  ! 

•SJIUfl  JO 


•saqiui-ej 


•siran  jo 

3213I3AV 


jsqran^i 


•sjinn  jo 
J3quin^[ 


•saqrarej 

'jo 
jsqiun^j 


•SJIUfl  JO 

laqum^ 

32-BJ3AV 


•ssqiurBjj 

'jo 
jaqinn^i 


•siian  jo 
asquint 
sa^jsAy 


to  Tt-O    rt  CO  NNO 
cococococococoro 


n  n  q  q   .  q  m  * 

co  co  rt  rt    '  rt  to  co 


to  rt  to  N-  O  CM  rt  to 
cocococo't'^-coco 


NO    M   to  CM  TfONON 


to  N  CO  N-  On  NO  0j 
cOf^^corrirOCOCO 


CO  On  NCO   CO  CM   On  CM 


to  N»  rt  tJ-  m  to  NO  O 
cocococorj-rococo 


•S3IllOIBj 
'j° 

asquint 


•sjinfi  jo 
jsqinnisj 
sSbisav 


•saqrarej 

'jo 
jaquinjsi 


On  N  NnO   CO       On  rj- 


CM  H  vq  co  rt  Tf  CO  M 
cocococococococo 


rt  rt  H    rtNO  NO  NO 


c/3  .a 
-a  g 

•3  3 


'S  S  Is  d 
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140 


TABLE  63.— UNDER-FED  FAMILIES.    NUMBER  REPORTING  EXPEN- 
DITURE OF  22  CENTS  PER  MAN  PER  DAY  AND  UNDER  FOR 
FOOD.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


Under-fed — Number  of  Families. 


Nationality. 

J  MBER 
LIES. 

$600  to 
$699 

$700  to 
$799 

$800  to 
$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

Total. 

u 

0 

u 

6 

0 

0 

r 

N 

0 

N 

« 

& 
9 

N 

S3 

o 

M 

u 

w 

n 

<N 

S3 

u 

o 
H 

u 

1 

-a 

CI 

a 

d 

& 

a 

a 

& 

a 

t> 

67 

39 

3 
1 

I 

4 

I 

I 

8 

2 

2 

3 

I 

1 

5 

3 

Irish 

24 
28 

2 

2 

3 
1 

1 

1 

2 

I 

7 

3 

24 
10 

I 

14 
57 
32 
57 

1 

I 

1 

I 

9 

7 

5 

I 

I 

1 

2 

2 

4 

4 

I 

I 

2 

1 

3 

Total  

318 

23 

I 

19 

5 

13 

3 

4 

I 

3 

62 

IO 

TABLE  64. — FOOD  EXPENDITURES  REDUCED  TO  NUMBER  OF 
CENTS  PER  MAN  PER  DAY.    AVERAGES  *— BY  INCOME 
AND  NATIONALITY. 


Nationality. 

Income. 

$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

$900 to $999 

$1000  to $1099 

United  States  

23-9 

26.0 

32.4 

33-8 

38.1 

Teutonic  

25-3 

26.4 

29-5 

31.6 

31-9 

20.8 

30.0 

26.5 

3M 

32.0 

23-5 

25-7 

24-5 

25.0 

2I.O 

25-5 

24-3 

30.2 

28.5 

23.1 

23.6 

24.0 

25-5 

29.7 

24.0 

25-i 

23.8 

31. 1 

23.0 

3i-i 

31.2 

33-9 

3i-5 

34-3 

Total  

25-3 

26.7 

25.6 

30.8 

32.9 

*  See  footnote,  Appendix  V  (p.  312). 
141 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  65.— UNDER-FED  FAMILIES.    SOURCES  OF  INCOME.— BY  IN- 
COME AND  NATIONALITY. 


Nationality. 

$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

imber 
ilies. 

ler-fed. 

Income 
from: 

imber 
ilies. 

ler-fed. 

Income 
from: 

imber 
ilies. 

ler-fed. 

Income 
from: 



Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Total  Unc 

1 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Total  Unc 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Total  Unc 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

II 

4 

4 

19 

5 

5 

13 

1 

I 

4 

1 

I 

7 

5 

I 

4 

9 

I 

I 

Irish  

4 

2 

2 

7 

7 

II 

3 

2 

I 

6 

2 

I 

I 

8 

2 

2 

4 

1 

I 

3 

I 

3 

I 

I 

16 

9 

6 

3 

14 

i 

2 

5 

12 

6 

2 

4 

Austrian,  etc  •. 

6 

2 

2 

9 

I 

3 

9 

5 

5 

16 

2 

I 

1 

14 

12 

II 

Total  

72 

24 

15 

9 

79 

24 

13 

73 

16 

3 

13 

$900  to  $999 

$1000  to  $1099 

Total. 

i 

Income 
from: 

i 

Income 
from: 

Income  from: 

u 

u 

s 

Nationality. 

Total  Numbc 
Families. 

Jnder- 

>> 
"5 

irces. 

Total  Numbc 
Families. 

Under- 

>. 
a 

irces. 

Total  Numbc 
Families. 

[Jnder- 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

Total  1 

Father  0 

Other  Soi 

Total  1 

Father  0 

Other  Sov 

Total  1 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

16 
II 

8 
8 

67 

39 
24 
28 

10 

8 

9 
2 

90 

25 
100 

I 

10 

I 

I 

6 

75 

5 
2 

1 

2 

2 

1 

I 

V 

8 

3 
1 

37 
25 
39 
9 
67 

5 

3 

63 
75 
61 

4 
9 
7 
9 

I 

I 

14 
57 
32 
57 

4 

3 

3 

6 

I 

1 

26 

10 

16 

Austrian,  etc  

1 

11 

1 

10 

91 
33 

Italian  

1 

I 

6 

3 

2 

1 

Total  

63 

5 

I 

4 

3i 

3 

3 

318 

72 

30 

42 

42 

58 

142 


FOOD 


TABLE   66.— UNDER-FED  FAMILIES.    NUMBER  REPORTING  SUR- 
PLUS AND  DEFICIT.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

Number 
Reporting : 

f 

ir-fed. 

Number 
Reporting 

:r-fed. 

Number 
Reporting : 

Nationality. 

Number  c 
Families  Und< 

Balance 
within  $25. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Number  0 
Families  Und< 

Balance 
within  $25. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Number  c 
Families  Und( 

Balance 
within  $25. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

4 

2 

I 

5 
5 

>, 

I 

I 

I 

I 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

2 

I 

3 
i 

2 

I 

2 

2 

1 

I 

I 

1 

\ 

:: 

I 

I 

9 

2 

2 

5 

2 

V 

7 
4 

I 

6 

6 

6 

I 

3 

5 

4 

1 

2 

;; 

2 

•• 

•• 

Total  

24 

9 

11 

4 

24 

IO 

12 

2 

16 

6 

8 

2 

$900  to  $999 

$1000  to  $1099 

Total. 

)f 

a*fed. 

Number 
Reporting: 

i 

Number 
Reporting: 

ar  of 
ar-fed. 

Families  Reporting:  , 

Nationality. 

mber  ( 
s  Undt 

tri 

i 

Number  c 
Families  Und< 

in 
—1 

AS 

Numbc 
s  Und< 

Balance 
within  $25. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Nu 
Familie 

Balan 
within  : 

Surpli 

Defic 

Balan 
within  ! 

Surpli 

Defic 

Total 
Familie 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

Number. 

Per  cent. 

- 

V 

I 
I 

IO 

8 

2 

8 
4 

6 

3 
1 

4 
4 
4 
5 

60.O 

37-5 
50.0 
50.0 
100.0 

2 

3 
1 

2 

20.0 

37-5 
50.0 
25.0 

2 
2 

2 

20 
25 

25 

I 

I 

3 
x 

I 

I 

I 

1 

I 

26 
11 
3 

15.0 
45-° 

19 
6 

3 

73-o 

5S-o 
100.0 

3 

12 

I 

Total  

5 

2 

2 

I 

3 

3 

72 

27 

37 

36 

50 

9 

13 

143 


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ON 

On 
On 

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148 


FOOD 


TABLE  73.— ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AT  HOME.    NUMBER  AND  PER 
CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPENDITURE 
OF  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Total 
Num- 
ber OF 

LIES. 

Families 
with  Ex- 
penditure 
for  Drink. 

Familii 
Under  $10. 

s  Reportin 
$10  to  $30. 

G  EXPENDIT 

$30  to  $50. 

URE  OF. 

Over  $50. 

M 
a 

a 

14 

OJ 

p-l 

u 

1 

3 

a 

u 

<L> 
Oh 

u 

& 
S 

3 

<-\ 

22 

19 
19 
13 

6 

3 

N 
™ 

£ 
3 

<4 

15 
23 
25 

21 

9 

a 

U 

h 

V 

CM 

55 
j5 
S 

3 

c 

■V 

U 
— 

8 
7 

10 
11 
19 

$700  to  $799  

$1000  to  $1099  

72 

79 
73 
63 
31 

56 
58 

59 
46 

24 

78 

73 
81 

73 
77 

13 
10 

8 
5 
3 

18 

13 
II 

8 
10 

31 
24 
26 
21 
19 

21 
29 

34 
33 
29 

6 
6 
7 
7 
6 

Total  

318 

243 

76 

39 

12 

79 

25 

93 

29 

32 

10 

25 

20 

80 

7 

28 

8 

32 

5 

20 

151 

114 

75 

23 

15 

4i 

27 

38 

25 

12 

*8 

$800  to  $899  

73 

59 

81 

8 

11 

19 

26 

25 

34 

7 

10 

94 

70 

74 

8 

8 

19 

20 

30 

32 

13 

14 

48 

37 

77 

4 

8 

7 

15 

10 

21 

16 

33 

TABLE  74.— ALCOHOLIC  DRINKS  AWAY  FROM  HOME  AND  AT  HOME. 
AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EXPENDITURE  AND  NUMBER 
OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Total 
Num- 
ber of 
Fami- 
lies. 

Average 
Income 
(Total). 

Average 
Expen- 
diture 
for  Al- 
coholic 
Drinks 

at  Home. 

Reporting  Alco- 
holic Drinks 
at  Home. 

Average  Expen- 
diture for  Alco- 
holic Drinks  at 
Home  and  Away. 

Num- 
ber of 
Fami- 
lies. 

Average 
Expendi- 
ture of 
Families 
Reporting. 

Average 
Amount. 

Per 
cent,  of 
Average 
Total 
Income. 

$400  to  $599  

25 

$503-03 

$14-13 

20 

$17.67 

$18.47 

2-7 

$600  to  $699  

72 

650.17 

18.06 

56 

23-23 

27.25 

4.2 

$700  to  $799  

79 

748.83 

20.93 

58 

28.51 

32.52 

4-4 

$800  to  $899  

73 

846.26 

24.68 

59 

30.53 

37-65 

4.4 

63 

942.03 

22.91 

46 

3I.38 

36.56 

3-9 

31 

1044.48 

28.67 

24 

37-03 

50.67 

4.9 

18 

1137.42 

39-63 

14 

50.95 

59-96 

5-2 

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153 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


NOTE  ON  DETAILS  OF  FOOD-BUDGETS 

To  illustrate  the  items  of  detail  in  expenditures  for  food,  six 
fairly  representative  schedules  are  presented  in  detail;  2%Ameri- 
can,  i  Russian,  i  Austrian  and  2  Italian.  Three  are  chosen 
from  families  having  an  income  between  $600  and  $700,  and  3 
from  families,  comparable  in  nationality,  with  incomes  of  about 
$900.  This  selection  makes  possible  a  comparison  of  the  diet  of 
a  family  somewhat  below  the  normal  standard  of  living,  with  that 
of  one  not  far  above  the  normal. 

1.  The  first  family  is  that  of  an  American  truck-driver,  living 
in  Harlem.  The  father  earns  $12  a  week,  $600  a  year.  The  family 
consists  of  the  man  and  his  wife  and  3  children,  aged  2,  4  and  8 
years.  The  nutrition  demanded  weekly  for  this  family  is  the 
equivalent  of  that  required  for  an  adult  man  for  22  days.  The 
dietary  analysis  made  by  Dr.  F.  P.  Underhill  (see  Appendix  VI, 
page  319)  showed  a  total  of  102  grams  of  protein  and  fuel-values 
to  the  amount  of  2504  calories,  both  reckoned  per  man  per  day. 
The  average  expenditure,  on  the  same  basis,  was  21.6  cents  per 
man  per  day.  The  details  of  the  weekly  food-budget  are  as  follows : 


Meats  and  fish:  Weekly  Expenditure. 

4  lbs.  fresh  beef  $0.48 

4  lbs.  salt  beef  28 

1  lb.  ham  16 

1  lb.  chicken  (4  lbs.  once  a  month)  . .  .14 

1  lb.  fish  (4  lbs.  once  a  month)  05  $1.11 


Eggs,  dairy  products,  etc. : 

1  lb.  butter  

14  eggs...  

7  qts.  milk  

1  can  condensed  milk 


•27 
•25 
.70 

.10  1.32 


Cereals : 

12  loaves  bread  60 

3^  doz.  rolls  35 

1  package  crackers  10 

1  package  breakfast-food  10 

Flour  05  1.20 

Carried  forward  I3.63 
*  54 


FOOD 


Vegetables  and  fruits: 
2  qts.  potatoes. .  . . 

Turnips,  onions,  etc. 

J  lb.  dried  peas  

i  can  tomatoes  

Fresh  fruit  


Brought  forward 


$3.63 


16 
10 

05 
08 

05 


44 


Sugar,  tea,  etc. : 

i  lb.  tea  18 

3i  lbs.  sugar  17 

Molasses  (1  pt.  monthly)  03 

1  bottle  pickles  10 


Alcoholic  drinks: 

2  pints  beer  20 

Total  


48 


20 


$4-75 


2.  The  following  is  the  food-budget  for  an  American  family 
living  on  East  80th  street.  The  father  drives  an  express-wagon; 
the  family  consists  of  the  parents,  3  girls,  aged  14,  10,  and  2,  and 
1  boy  9  years  old.  The  father's  earnings  amount  to  $816,  supple- 
mented by  $144  from  other  members  of  the  family.  The  dietary 
equivalents  per  week  amount  to  what  would  be  needed  by  1  man 
for  26  days.  The  dietary  analysis  shows  a  total  of  129  grams  of 
protein  and  3483  calories  per  man  per  day,  and  the  average  ex- 
penditure per  man  per  day  is  27  cents.  The  weekly  expenditures 
are  reported  as  follows: 

Meats  and  fish :  Weekly  Expenditure. 

5  lbs.  beef  $0.68 

03 


1  lb.  beef 

2j  lbs.  pork  

2  lbs.  ham  :  

1  lb.  mutton  (4  lbs.  once  a  month)  . . 
^  lb.  chicken   (goose  at  Christmas 

$2.00;  chicken  once  in  3  months, 

85  cts.)  

ij  lbs.  fresh  fish  20 

J  can  salmon  07 

Carried  forward 
155 


40 
18 


10 


$..85 
1 1. 85 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Brought  forward  fi.85 
Eggs,  dairy  products,  etc.: 

1  lb.  butter  30 

i  lb.  cheese  15 

15  eggs--:-  25 

21  qts.  milk   1 .05      1 .75 

Cereals : 

21  loaves  (stale)  bread  53 

1  dozen  rolls  10 

Cake  twice  a  week  20 

Rice  (1  lb.  a  month)  02 

Flour  (3^  lbs.  twice  a  month)  06 

Oatmeal  05 

Grapenuts,  etc  13     1 .09 

Vegetables,  fruits,  etc.: 

6  qts.  potatoes  (8  to  12  cents)  60 

Turnips  or  carrots  03 

2  lbs.  onions  09 

Fresh  vegetables  70 

Dried  beans  and  peas  03 

1  can  tomatoes  10 

1  can  corn  monthly,  per  week  03 

Jelly  (6  glasses  a  year  at  10  cents)  01 

Fresh  fruit  25 

Dried  prunes  (1  lb.  a  month)  '. . .  .03  1.87 

Sugar,  tea,  coffee,  etc. : 

ii  lbs.  coffee  30 

if  lbs.  sugar  09 

Syrup,  10-cent  can  twice  a  year  01 

Pickles  and  spices  05 

Alcoholic  drinks: 

Beer,  10  cents  in  2  months  01  .46 


Total   $7.02 


3.  The  following  is  the  food  report  for  a  Russian  family  in 
Brooklyn  (Brownsville).  The  father  is  a  carpenter  (non-union) 
with  wages  of  $15  a  week,  but,  on  account  of  unemployment, 
earning  only  $600  a  year,  which  is  the  entire  income  of  the  family. 
Besides  the  parents  there  are  4  boys,  aged  6,  4,  and  2  years  and 
6  months,  respectively,  making  a  food  equivalent  of  3.3  units,  the 

156 


FOOD 


weekly  requirement  being  that  of  i  man  for  22  days.  The  food- 
values  amount  to  1 15  grams  of  protein  and  2710  calories  per  man 
per  day.    The  expenditure  amounts  to  21  cents  per  man  per  day. 


Meats  and  fish :                               Weekly  Expenditure. 
7  lbs.  beef  $0.84 

1  lb.  mutton  16 

2  lbs.  fish  20 

2  cans  salmon  28  $1.48 

Eggs,  dairy  products,  etc.: 

2  lbs.  butter  64 

2  packages  cheese  08 

1  dozen  eggs  24 

6  qts.  milk  (at  Straus  depot)  20 

3  cans  condensed  milk  30  1.46 


Cereals: 

7  loaves  of  bread  56 

24  rolls  20 

3I  lbs.  flour  10 

1  lb.  cereal  02  .88 

Vegetables  and  fruits: 

6  lbs.  potatoes  09 

2  lbs.  onions  06 

Fresh  vegetables  10 

1  lb.  dried  beans  08 

1  lb.  dried  peas  04 

Fresh  fruit  15 

i  lb.  dried  prunes  00  .58 

Sugar,  tea,  etc. : 

i  lb.  tea  05 

I  lb.  coffee  05 

3i  lb.  sugar  20 

\  lb.  spice  02  .32 


Alcoholic  drinks: 

(Wine  on  holidays,  $1.50  a  year)  03  .03 


Total 


157 


?475 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


4.  The  report  which  follows  is  for  an  Austrian  family  on  East 
82nd  street.  The  father  is  a  shipping-clerk,  earning  $760  a  year, 
to  which  is  added  $104  from  a  lodger.  There  is  a  boy  of  12  and 
a  girl  of  3.  The  weekly  food  requirements  of  the  family  are 
equivalent  to  those  of  an  adult  man  for  20  days.  The  dietary 
computations  show  a  total  of  150  grams  of  protein  per  man  per 
day  and  3685  calories,  at  a  cost  of  35  cents  per  man  per  day. 


Meats  and  fish :                                  Weekly  Expenditure. 
4  lbs.  beef  $0.72 

75 

25  • 
10  $2.33 


£  lb.  corned  beef  (cooked) 
2  lbs.  mutton  


4  lbs.  chicken. 

2  lbs.  fish  

1  can  salmon. 


Eggs,  dairy  products,  etc. : 

1  lb.  butter  10 

1  lb.  cheese  32 

16  eggs  weekly  (in  summer)  25 

21  qts.  milk  (4  cents)  84     1.5 1 

Cereals : 

7  loaves  bread  35 

49  rolls  (7  for  5  cents  daily)  35 

2  boxes  crackers  10 

3^  lbs.  flour  10 

1  box  breakfast-food  14  1.04 


Vegetables,  fruits,  etc. : 

4  qts.  potatoes  20 

i£  lbs.  onions  06 

Carrots  05 

Fresh  vegetables  24 

£  qt.  dried  beans  06 

£  qt.  dried  peas  06 

Cucumbers  (10  cents  weekly  in  summer)  .05 

Jelly  (12  cents  weekly  in  winter)  06 

Oranges  and  bananas.  25 

£  lb.  nuts  in  winter  08  1.11 

Carried  forward  15-99 

158 


FOOD 


Brought  forward  $5-99 

Sugar,  tea,  etc, : 

J  lb.  tea  05 

J  lb.  coffee  10 

1  box  cocoa  10 

3^  lbs.  sugar  18 

Spices  04  .47 

Alcoholic  drinks : 

1  pint  bottle  whiskey  50 

Wine  08  .58 

Total  $7.04 


5.  An  Italian  family  living  on  West  Houston  Street  makes  the 
report  of  food-expenditures  that  follows.  The  father  is  a  long- 
shoreman, earning  $14  a  week,  or  allowing  for  unemployment, 
$672  a  year.  The  family  consists  of  the  parents,  the  woman's 
father,  a  girl  of  13,  a  boy  of  9  and  a  boy  of  14  months.  The  nutri- 
ment required  amounts  to  4.2  in  terms  of  an  adult  man,  and  the 
weekly  requirement  is  the  equivalent  of  food  for  1  man  for  29 
days.  The  dietary  analysis  shows  106  grams  of  protein  and  3888 
calories  per  man  per  day,  at  a  cost  of  24  cents  per  man  per  day, 
or  of  20  cents  for  everything  except  beer. 


Meats  and  fish:                                 Weekly  Expenditure. 
1 1  lbs.  beef  fo.90 

3  lbs.  fish  $0.30  $1.20 

Hggs,  dairy  products,  etc. : 

7  lbs.  lard  50 

i  lb.  cheese  15 

8  eggs  20 

7  qts.  milk  35  1.20 

Cereals : 

21  loaves  bread   1.05 

4  lbs.  flour  14 

14  lbs.  macaroni  (American)  98  2.17 

Carried  forward  $4.57 
159 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Brought  forward  $4.57 

Vegetables,  fruit,  etc. : 

3  qts.  potatoes  15 

Onions  05 

Fresh  vegetables  10 

2  lbs.  dried  beans  15 

Fresh  fruits  10  .55 

Sugar,  tea,  etc. : 

1  lb.  coffee  35 

3  lbs.  sugar  18 

1  qt.  olive  oil  20  .73 

Alcoholic  liquors: 

14  pints  beer   1.40  1.40 

Total  $7.25 


6.  Another  Italian  family,  that  of  a  printer,  living  on  Oliver 
Street,  is  comprised  of  father,  mother,  a  boy  of  9  years  and 
a  girl  of  7.  The  man  earns  $884  a  year,  which  is  the  sole 
income  of  the  family.  The  nutriment  required  for  the  family  is 
2.8  times  the  requirements  of  an  adult  man,  and  the  weekly  re- 
quirement is  equivalent  to  that  for  one  man  for  20  days,  The 
food-analysis  shows  176  grams  of  protein,  and  4390  calories  per 
man  per  day  at  a  cost  of  33  cents  per  man  per  day.  The  weekly 
expenditures  for  food  are  reported  as  follows: 


Meats  and  fish:  Weekly  Expenditure. 

8  lbs.  beef  J  1.28 

1  lb.  bologna  sausage  10 

9  lbs.  fish  54 

5  lbs.  salt  fish  35  $2.27 

Eggs,  dairy  products,  etc. : 

2  lbs/lard  25 

i  lb.  Roman  cheese  11 

1  doz.  eggs  25 

7  qts.  milk  56     1. 17 

Carried  forward  $344 
160 


FOOD 


Brought  forward  I3.44 

Cereals : 

14  loaves  bread  70 

9  lbs.  flour  27 

5  lbs.  macaroni  (imported)  35  1.32 

Vegetables  and  fruits: 

5  qts.  potatoes  25 

Turnips  05 

Onions  15 

Carrots  10 

Fresh  vegetables  40 

4  lbs.  dried  beans  40 

2  lbs.  dried  peas  15 

Fresh  fruit  20 

Dried  fruits  15  1.85 


Sugar,  tea,  etc. : 

1  lb.  coffee  12 

2  lbs.  sugar  12 

1  qt.  olive  oil  50  .74 

Alcoholic  drinks: 

7  pints  beer  70  .70 


Total  $8.05 


A  comparison  of  these  selected  budgets  shows  some  features 
that  are  typical  of  the  classes  that  they  represent.  The  Italian 
schedules  show  a  dependence  on  vegetable  food  for  a  larger  part  of 
the  protein  provided  than  do  those  of  the  other  nationalities. 
Olive  oil  and  lard  take  the  place  of  butter;  macaroni  and  dried 
beans  and  dried  peas  furnish  their  share  of  protein.  The  poorer 
families  throughout  buy  cheaper  kinds  of  food, — more  bread  and 
less  meat,  for  instance,  and  cheaper  qualities  of  the  same  kind  of 
food.  Of  the  $600  families,  none  provides  the  standard  amount 
of  both  protein  and  fuel-food,  and  the  expenditure  in  each  case 
is  under  the  22-cent  minimum  suggested  by  Dr.  Underhill.  In 
the  3  schedules  for  higher  incomes,  the  standard  amount  of 
protein  and  fuel-value  is  provided,  but  the  cost  ranges  from 
27  to  35  cents  per  man  per  day.  The  Italian  family  gets  more  of 
both  protein  and  fuel-values  for  33  cents,  than  the  Austrian 
family  for  35  cents. 

11  161 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


5.  CLOTHING. 

1 .  Amount  and  Percentage  of  Expenditure  for  Clothing. — 
The  expenditure  for  clothing  increases  steadily  with  increase 
of  income,  as  shown  in  the  table  of  averages  (Table  79,  page  172), 
and  the  percentage  of  expenditures  devoted  to  this  purpose  also 
increases,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  summary,  taken  from 
Table  79: 

Average  Per  Cent,  of 

Number  of       Expenditure      Total  Expendi- 
Income.  Families.        for  Clothing.  ture. 

$600  to  $699  72  $83 .48  12.9 

700  to  799  79  98.79  13.4 

800  to  899  73  1 13.59  14.0 

900  to  999  03  132.34  14.6 

1000  to  1099  31  1 55-59  !5-5 

Of  the  nationalities  represented,  the  Italians  report  the  small- 
est expenditure  for  clothing,  the  Austrians  and  Russians  next.  The 
highest  averages  and  percentages  are  found  among  the  Bohemians, 
and  the  American,  Teutonic  and  Irish  families  are  above  the 
average  in  almost  every  income-group.  Considered  by  occupations 
(Table  16,  page  73)  the  laborers  report  clothing-expenditures  some- 
what below  the  average  for  all  families  of  the  corresponding 
income-groups,  the  teamsters  are  close  to  the  general  average, 
and  the  garment-workers  are  distinctly  below  the  average.  The 
following  table  shows  the  figures  for  all  the  income-groups  where 
more  than  3  families  are  represented: 


All  Families. 

Laborers. 

Teamsters. 

Garment-workers. 

Income. 

Ave. 

Per 
Cent. 

Ave. 

Per 
Cent. 

Ave. 

Per 
Cent. 

Ave. 

Per 
Cent. 

$6oo-$699 
$700^799 
$800-1899 
$900- $999 
$iooo-$ic>99 

$83.48 
98.79 
H3-59 
132-34 
155-59 

12.9 

13-4 
14.O 
14.6 
15-5 

$76.67 

105-57 
96.94 

12. 1 

14.1 
13.0 

$79-42 
97.09 
126.76 

12.3 

13-4 
14.7 

$80.85 
82.90 
92.73 
95-59 

144-53 

12.7 
II. 6 
11. 7 
11. 1 
13-3 

A  certain  offset  in  the  case  of  the  garment-workers  is  to  be 
found  in  their  greater  opportunities  for  making  their  own  clothes. 

162 


CLOTHING 


In  the  slack  season  of  the  garment-trades  the  men  are  often 
found,  when  materials  are  procurable,  making  clothing  for  the 
members  of  the  family. 

Inquiry  was  made  as  to  gifts  of  clothing  received  by  the  families 
interviewed.  While  the  answers  bring  out  no  very  exact  data 
as  to  the  value  of  the  gifts  received,  they  do  show  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  families  on  the  lower  incomes  depend  upon  gifts  to 
keep  up  such  standard  in  regard  to  dress  as  they  maintain.  The 
figures  may  be  found  in  Table  80  (page  173),  from  which  it  appears 
that  87  of  the  318  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and 
$1100,  or  27  per  cent.,  report  gifts  of  clothing.  Separating  the 
American,  Teutonic,  Irish  and  colored  families  from  the  others, 
we  find  that  in  71  of  the  158  cases  of  these  nationalities,  or  45 
per  cent.,  gifts  of  clothing  are  reported,  as  against  only  16,  or  10 
per  cent.,  among  the  160  families  of  Bohemians,  Russians,  Aus- 
trians  and  Italians.  The  tabulation  by  income-groups  shows 
that  until  the  $900  level  is  reached,  more  than  one-quarter  of  all 
families,  or  more  than  40  per  cent,  of  those  included  in  the  four 
nationalities  first  named  above,  report  gifts  of  clothing.  Inas- 
much as  these  four  nationalities  also  report  a  higher  average  expen- 
diture than  the  South-European  families,  it  seems  a  safe  inference 
that  a  higher  standard  prevails,  in  the  matter  of  dress,  among 
the  American  and  North-European  families  of  our  group  than 
among  the  Russians,  Austro-Hungarians  and  Italians. 

The  apportionment  of  expenditure  for  clothing  among  the 
different  members  of  the  family  is  a  subject  of  some  interest.  In 
Table  81  (page  174)  may  be  found  the  average  amount,  by  income- 
groups,  and  the  percentage  of  the  total  outlay  for  clothing 
that  is  expended  for  each  member  of  the  family.  In  the  case  of  the 
children,  the  average  is  obtained  by  adding  the  amount  for  each 
boy  or  each  girl  reported,  and  dividing  by  the  number  of  families 
reporting  expenditure  for  boys  or  for  girls.  The  amount  for  each 
child  as  included  in  the  addition  above  described,  is  the  amount 
reported  for  each  boy  or  girl  where  one  is  reported  in  the 
family;  when  more  than  1  boy  or  more  than  1  girl  is  reported, 
the  amount  entered  is  the  average  amount  expended  per  boy, 
or  per  girl,  in  the  given  family.  Table  81  I — 1 1 1  shows  the 
averages  and  percentages,  first,  for  all  the  318  families;  second, 

,63 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


for  the  231  families  which  report  no  gifts;  third,  for  the  87 
families  reporting  gifts.  The  amount  expended  for  each  member 
of  the  family  increases  with  each  rise  in  the  income-scale  in  almost 
every  instance.  In  the  case  of  the  families  receiving  gifts,  however, 
the  movement  is  quite  erratic,  perhaps  because  the  amount  of  gifts 
received  bears  no  necessary  relation  to  income.  The  father's 
clothing  takes  about  one-third  of  the  clothing-allowance,  the 
mother's  about  one-fifth;  each  child  from  one-eighth  to  one-sixth. 
It  appears  in  the  table  that  the  father's  clothing  costs  more  than 
that  of  any  other  member  of  the  family,  and  also  that  the 
percentage,  but  not  the  actual  amount,  diminishes  as  income 
increases.  In  the  case  of  families  without  gifts, — perhaps  the 
most  significant  for  this  comparison, — the  father  spends,  on  the 
average,  35.6  per  cent,  of  all  that  is  spent  for  clothing,  in  the 
case  of  families  with  incomes  of  between  $600  and  $700,  as 
against  29.3  per  cent,  in  the  case  of  families  with  incomes  of  from 
1 1 000  to  1 1 100.  The  mother's  percentage  remains  nearly  con- 
stant, but  is  lowest  in  the  $1000  income-group,  where  it  is 
20.3  per  cent.  The  mother,  that  is,  spends  much  less  on  her 
clothing  than  the  father.  Even  in  the  families  with  incomes  of 
over  1 1 100,  hardly  a  case  was  reported  in  which  the  woman  spent 
as  much  for  clothing  as  the  man.  The  boys  and  girls  stand  nearly 
on  an  even  footing  as  regards  expenditure  for  clothing.  The 
average  for  each  boy  is,  however,  a  trifle  above  that  for  each 
girl,  in  each  income-group.  The  children's  clothing  consumes  a 
larger  proportion  of  all  that  is  spent  for  clothing  in  the  case  of 
higher  incomes  than  in  the  lower.  In  the  $600  group,  12.5  per 
cent,  of  the  total  goes  for  each  boy,  12.2  percent,  for  each  girl;  in 
the  $1000  income-group  the  percentages  are  15.7  and  16. 1  re- 
spectively. This  increase  may  be  in  part  referred  to  the  fact 
that  a  larger  proportion  of  the  children  among  the  families  with 
higher  incomes  are  wage-earners  (see  page  57),  and  that  these 
children  are  likely  to  need  relatively  large  expenditure  for  clothing, 
by  reason  both  of  age  and  of  occupation.* 

*  The  money- value  of  the  assistance  received  in  the  way  of  gifts  may  be  inferred 
from  a  comparison  of  the  averages  for  the  families  "without  gifts"  and  "with 
gifts."  This  is  an  uncertain  reliance,  however,  since  several  families  "with  gifts" 
report  a  larger  clothing-bill  than  other  families  of  the  same  income  and  nationality 
"without  gifts."    It  may  be  noted,  however,  for  what  it  is  worth,  that  the  average 

164 


CLOTHING 


Table  82  (page  175)  shows,  for  the  incomes  above  $1100 
and  below  $600,  the  data  regarding  expenditure  for  clothing. 
The  tendency  of  clothing  to  claim  a  larger  part  of  the  income  as 
income  increases  appears  also  in  these  scattering  cases,  as  well  as 
the  tendency  for  the  father's  dress  to  claim  a  diminishing  propor- 
tion of  the  whole  expenditure  for  clothing.  In  the  averages  of 
the  6  families  with  $1500  incomes  the  'mother's  amount  ($54.34) 
and  percentage  (21)  approach  more  nearly  to  the  father's  ($66.47, 
or  25.5  per  cent.)  than  on  the  lower  incomes.  But  the  number  of 
families  is  too  few  to  warrant  anything  more  than  the  suggestion 
that  it  is  only  in  families  with  a  relatively  high  standard  of  living 
that  the  woman  is  able  to  spend  more  on  dress  than  her  husband. 

In  Table  83  (page  176)  is  given  the  average  expenditure  for 
clothing  for  each  member  of  the  family,  by  nationalities,  of  the 
families  without  gifts  of  clothing  in  two  representative  income- 
groups  ($700-799  and  $900-999).  These  tables  are  given  to 
permit  a  comparison  of  nationalities  in  regard  to  the  point  before 
us.  The  general  tendencies  already  noticed  appear  in  most  cases. 
In  every  case  save  the  Austrians  the  father's  percentage  is  less 
on  the  higher  income  than  on  the  lower.  The  Irish,  Bohemian, 
Russian  and  Italian  mothers  spend  a  larger  percentage  of  the  total 
on  the  higher  income  than  on  the  lower.  The  proportion  expended 
for  Italian  children  is  exceptionally  low,  but  this  is  accounted  for 
in  part  by  the  low  average  age  of  the  children  reported  in  the 
Italian  schedules. 

2.  Estimate  of  the  Clothing  Necessary  for  a  Normal 
Family  and  its  Cost. — On  the  basis  of  the  averages  of  expenditures 
and  the  details  given  in  typical  schedules,  the  following  estimate 
is  made  of  the  articles  of  clothing  needed  annually  by  a  normal 
family,  consisting  of  father,  mother,  and  3  children;  for  instance, 
a  girl  of  10,  a  boy  of  6  and  a  boy  of  4: 

total  expenditure  for  clothing  is  less  by  $6.39  in  the  $600  income-group  for 
families  with  gifts  than  for  those  without,  and  in  the  $1000  income-group  is  less  by 
$30.63.    The  figures  are  as  follows: 


Families  Families 

Income.                  Without  Gifts.  With  Gifts.  Difference. 

$600  to  $699  $85.70  $79-31  $6.39 

700  to  799  102.79  86.99  iS-8o 

800  to  899  113-63  H3-49  0.14 

900  to  999  135-67  122.06  13-61 

1000  to  1099  162.49  131.86  30-63 

165 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


For  the  Man. 

2  hats  or  caps   $2.00 

1  overcoat*   5.00 

1  suit   10.00 

1  pair  pantaloons   2.00 

2  pair  overalls   1.50 

3  working  shirts   1.00 

2  white  shirts   1.00 

6  collars  60 

4  ties  50 

4  handkerchiefs  30 

Summer  underwear   1.00 

Winter  underwear   1.50 

6  pair  hose  60 

2  pair  shoes   4.00 

Repair  of  shoes   1.50 

Gloves  or  mittens   .50 

$33.00 

For  Each  Boy. 

2  hats   $0.50 

1  overcoat   2.50 

1  suit   2.50 

1  pair  trousers  50 

2  waists  50 

Summer  underwear  50 

Winter  underwear   1.00 

6  pair  stockings  50 

2  pair  shoes   2.00 

Repair  of  shoes   1.25 

Mittens  25 


For  Washing. 
Soap,  etc.  ( 1 5  cts.  a  week) 
Laundry  (  5  cts.  a  week) 


$12.00 

$7.50 
2.50 

$10.00 


*  Costs  $10  to  $15,  lasts  2  or  3  years. 

166 


For  the  Woman. 
i  hat   $1.50 

1  cloakf   2.50 

2  dresses  of  wash  goods  2.50 
1  woolen  dress   5.00 

3  waists   1.50 

1  petticoat  50 

Linen,  etc  70 

Summer  underwear  50 

Winter  underwear   1.00 

6  handkerchiefs  45 

Gloves  or  mittens  50 

3  aprons  50 

6  pair  stockings  60 

2  pair  shoes   3.00 

Repair  of  shoes   1.25 

Sundries   1.00 

$23.00 

For  the  Girl. 

2  hats   $1.25 

1  cloak   2.00 

4  dresses  of  wash  goods  2.00 

1  woolen  dress   1.50 

4  waists   1. 00 

2  petticoats  50 

Summer  underwear  50 

Winter  underwear   1.00 

Ribbons,  etc  50 

6  handkerchiefs  25 

Gloves  or  mittens  25 

6  pair  stockings  50 

2  pair  shoes   2.50 

Repair  of  shoes   1.25 

$15.00 

Summary. 

For  the  man  $33.00 

For  the  woman   23.00 

For2  boys,  each  $12.00. .  24.00 

For  1  girl   15.00 

For  washing   10.00 

$105.00 

f  Costs  $5,  lasts  2  years. 


CLOTHING 


Such  an  estimate  presupposes,  on  the  part  of  the  mother,  a  high 
grade  of  efficiency  in  mending  and  remaking.  It  makes  a  meager 
allowance  for  outside  garments,  and  one  quite  insufficent  for  men 
in  certain  occupations.  It  seems  within  bounds  to  assume  that 
less  than  f  100  will  not  suffice  to  provide  decent  clothing  for  a 
normal  family  of  five.* 

Assuming,  then,  that  less  than  $100  marks  a  standard  in 


¥0 


n 


i 

11 


to 


Diagram  13. — Number  of  under-clad  families  in  each  of  the  principal  income- 
groups.    (See  Table  84,  page  177.) 


clothing  below  the  normal,  the  families  reporting  less  than  this 
amount  have  been  counted  and  designated  "under-clothed."  An 
exception  has  been  made  in  the  case  of  garment-workers,  and 
$80  has  been  assumed  as  the  minimum  expenditure  indispensable 
for  the  families  of  those  in  this  occupation  (page  162).  Tables 
84-87  (pages  177-179)  show  the  results  of  this  analysis. 

*The  writer  is  not  prepared  to  affirm  the  converse  statement  that  $100  will 
suffice  to  provide  decent  clothing  for  the  ordinary  family  of  five. 

167 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Of  the  318  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100,  126, 
or  40  per  cent.,  report  less  than  $100  spent  for  clothing.*  By 
incomes,  57  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  incomes  of  between 
$600  and  $800  are  under-clad,  32  per  cent,  of  those  with  incomes 
of  $800  to  $900,  and  18  per  cent,  of  those  with  incomes  between 
$900  and  $1 100.  Of  those  with  incomes  below  $600  we  find  that 
three-quarters  are  under-clothed,  while  only  1  in  12  of  the  families 


Diagram  14. — Number  of  under-clad  families  in  each  of  the  nationality-groups. 


with  over  $1 100  to  spend  falls  in  this  category.  By  nationalities, 
the  under-clad  families  are  most  frequent  in  the  group  comprising 
Russians,  Austrians,  Italians,  and  Bohemians,  where  they  comprise 
79  out  of  160  families,  or  49  per  cent.  Of  the  other  nationalities 
(American,  Teutonic,  Irish,  colored),  the  under-clad  number  47 
out  of  158  families,  or  30  per  cent.    Thirteen,  however,  of  the 

*  Of  the  garment-workers,  only  those  reporting  less  than  $80  are  included  in 
the  126  enumerated  as  under-clad.  Twelve  garment-workers'  families  reported 
between  $80  and  $100  for  clothing. 

168 


CLOTHING 


28  colored  families  are  under-clad.  Considered  with  reference 
to  sources  of  income,  we  find  (Table  85,  page  177,  and  Table  125, 
page  241),  that  with  the  exception  of  families  having  incomes 
between  §600  and  §700,  the  under-clad  are  less  frequent,  rela- 
tively, among  families  supported  by  the  father  alone  than  among 
all  families.    In  tabular  form  this  will  readily  be  seen:* 

Under-clad  Families. 
Per  Cent,  of  all   Per  Cent,  of  Under- 


Income.                          Families.  clothed  Families. 

?6oo  to  §699  63.9  76 

700  to    799  50.6  46 

800  to    899  30.1  22 

900  to    999  54.0  3 1 

1000  to   1099  25.8 


Considered  with  reference  to  the  reporting  of  surplus  or  deficit 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  the  under-clad  families  make  the  same  sort  of 
showing  as  the  under-fed  and  over-crowded.  Table  86  (page  178) 
shows  that  the  under-clothed  are  the  families  that,  as  a  rule,  oftener 
come  within  their  income  than  all  the  families  taken  at  large.  Of 
the  whole  318  families,  36.5  per  cent,  report  an  even  balance 
(within  $25.00)  between  income  and  expenditure,  36.5  per  cent, 
report  a  surplus,  and  27  per  cent,  a  deficit  (Table  1 19,  page  235). 
Of  the  under-clothed  families  32  per  cent,  report  an  even  balance, 
65  per  cent,  a  surplus,  and  only  17  per  cent,  a  deficit.  The  per- 
centage reporting  a  deficit  by  income-groups,  is  as  follows: 

Families  Reporting  Deficit. 
Per  Cent,  of  all    Per  Cent,  of  Under- 


Income.  Families.  clothed  Families. 

$600  to  §699  29  25 

700  to    799  25  15 

800  to    899  30  13 

900  to    999  22  o 

1000  to  1099  29 


An  examination  of  Table  86  shows  that  the  Americans,  the 
Teutons,  and  the  colored  have  a  larger  proportion  of  families 

*  In  the  above  enumeration,  families  receiving  gifts  and  reporting  a  clothing 
expenditure  under  Sioo  are  counted  as  under-clothed,  because  so  far  as  their 
own  resources  are  concerned  they  are  not  able  to  maintain  the  standard. 

169 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


reporting  deficit  among  their  under-clothed  than  have  the  families 
representing  the  other  nationalities.  Only  2  of  the  21  under- 
clothed  Russian  families  report  a  deficit,  and  these  are  both  in  the 
$600  income-group. 

3.  Washing. — Following  the  example  of  Le  Play,  expenditures 
for  washing  are  included  under  the  head  of  clothing,  as  pertaining 
to  the  up-keep  of  that  part  of  the  family  equipment.  In  almost 
all  of  the  families  under  consideration,  the  washing  is  done  at 
home,  involving  an  outlay  of  money  only  for  soap  and  minor 
washing -materials.  This  is  usually  reported  at  from  10  to  15 
cents  a  week.  In  some  cases, — most  frequent  in  our  schedules 
among  the  Bohemian  families,  where  the  mother  goes  out  to  work, 
— some  one  outside  the  family  is  paid  to  do  the  washing.  The  same 
arrangement  is  reported  for  one  or  two  families  with  an  invalid 
mother.  Table  88  (page  179)  shows  the  average  expenditure 
for  washing,  by  income,  and  the  number  and  per  cent,  of  families 
spending  (1)  under  $10,  (2)  from  $10  to  $20,  and  (3)  over  $20  for 
washing.  The  average  expenditure  increases  with  each  increase 
of  income,  from  $8.36  for  the  $600  families  to  $13.53  f°r  tne 
$1000  group.  By  the  $10  grouping,  we  see  that  more  than  three- 
quarters  of  the  $600  families  and  less  than  half  of  the  $1000  fam- 
ilies, report  less  than  $10,  while  of  the  14  families  reporting  more 
than  $20,  3  only  have  incomes  below  $800,  and  8  have  incomes 
above  $900. 

The  average  by  nationalities  (Table  89,  page  180)  shows  some 
variations  that  appear  arbitrary.  But  the  Americans  spend  more 
and  the  Italians  less  than  the  average,  in  every  income-group. 
Some  aberrations  in  the  averages,  as  in  individual  cases,  are  due  to 
the  inclusion  of  the  cost  of  washing-materials  in  cases  where  the 
woman  takes  in  washing. 

The  sending  of  some  articles  to  the  laundry  is  reported  by  the 
majority  of  families.  Table  90  (page  181)  shows  the  details. 
Nearly  half  of  the  1 5 1  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and 
$800  send  some  work  to  the  laundry,  although  only  13  of  them 
spend  more  than  10  cents  a  week.  Two-thirds  of  the  94  families 
with  incomes  of  $900  to  $1 100  report  sending  work  to  the  laundry, 
and  16  of  them  pay  more  than  10  cents  a  week.  The  laundry 
finish  is  evidently  a  sign  of  a  rising  standard  of  living,  for  five- 

170 


CLOTHING 


sixths  of  the  48  families  with  over  $1 100  a  year  send  work  to  the 
laundry,  and  half  of  them  pay  more  than  10  cents  a  week. 

The  nationalities  differ  widely  in  their  dependence  on  the  laundry. 
Only  one-eighth  of  the  57  Italian  families  and  only  5  of  the  28 
colored  families  pay  for  work  done  by  this  institution.  Sixty-eight 
per  cent,  of  the  American  families  resort  to  it,  and  22  per  cent,  of 
them  pay  over  10  cents  a  week.  Eighty-seven  per  cent,  of  the 
Russians  depend  upon  it,  15  per  cent,  paying  over  10  cents  a  week. 
The  work  sent  to  the  laundry  is  usually  the  collars  and  cuffs  worn 
by  the  men  and  boys. 


171 


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172 


CLOTHING 


TABLE  80.— CLOTHING.  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  GIFTS. 
—BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to 
$699 

$700  to 
$799 

$800  to 
$899 

$900  to 
$999 

$1000  to 
$1099 

Total. 

Nationality. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Number  of 
Families. 



Number  of 
Families. 

Total. 

imber  Re- 
ling  Gifts. 

Total. 

unber  Rc- 
ting  Gifts. 

Total. 

imber  Re- 
ting  Gifts. 

Total. 

imber  Re- 
ting  Gifts. 

Total. 

imbcr  Re- 
ting  Gifts. 

Total. 

imbcr  Re- 
ting  Gifts. 

Per  Cent,  of 
Families. 

*a 

*a 

za 

*a 

*a 

United  States.. 

II 

7 

19 

9 

13 

5 

16 

8 

8 

3 

67 

32 

48 

4 

4 

7 

3 

9 

3 

II 

1 

8 

2 

39 

13 

33 

4 

2 

7 

2 

7 

4 

5 

2 

I 

1 

24 

11 

46 

ii 

7 

6 

2 

8 

4 

2 

1 

I 

1 

28 

15 
3 

54 
21 

4 

2 

3 

I 

3 

4 

14 

14 

12 

i 

9 

2 

6 

57 

3 

5 

Austrian,  etc. . . 

6 

I 

9 

2 

9 

i 

7 

1 

1 

32 

5 

16 

,6 

2 

14 

2 

12 

i 

9 

6 

57 

5 

9 

Total  

7* 

25 

79 

21 

73 

19 

63 

3i 

7 

318 

87 

27 

Income. 

Total  Number  op 
Families. 

Number  Report- 
ing Gifts. 

Per  Cent.  Report- 
ing Gifts. 

$400  to  S599  

25 

7 

28 

151 

46 

30 

$800  to  $899  

73 

19 

26 

94 

22 

23 

48 

6 

13 

173 


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•S3I[IU1B,{ 

jo  jbquin^; 

COCO    N  Nt^ 
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Expenditure  for 
Clothing  of  each  Boy. 

•3n;qjoi3  joj 

-OX  P  -1U33  J3J 

00   N    N  O  N 
ci        4  4 

•3jniipn3dx3 

$10.68 
12.98 
16.13 
19.29 
24.32 

jo  j'squinfvj 

0  too  0 

VOO  O   W)  (N 

Expenditure  for 
Mother's  Clothing. 

•3uiqioi3  joj 
3jn;ipu3dx3  \vi 

-OX  JO    }U33  J3J 

q  10  q  q  co 
m  d  d  4  d 

O)    N   CI    N  O 

|      00    coO    M  vo 

•ajnjipuadxj    |     t  N.  *T  *T  <1 

33BJ3AV                «T  8   S   «  CO 

1 

1 

•SOtJIUiBJ 

jo  j'squm^ 

CN    ON  CO  CN  O 
r-  t^vO  co 

Expenditure  for 
Father's  Clothing. 

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amiipiwdxa  psi      to  4  d  6  oo 

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aSvjo.vy 

O  On  O  O  <N 

M    H    H    CO  q 

06  4  4  d  4- 

jo  j'aqum^ 

f)   OvfON  O 
i>-      t^vO  co 

Total  Expenditure 
for  Clothing. 

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00  oo\*n 

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00  On  m  co  vo 

CO           M    M  M 

•ssijuirej 
jo  jsqainx 

CM  On  fO  <0  m 
i>.  r^o  co 

Income. 

On  On  On  On  On 
On  O  On  On  On 
vo  1^00  On  0 

O  O  O  C  O 

OOOOO 
OOOOO 
VO  t^OO   On  O 

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W  On  co  m 
<N   H   4"  <N  NO 


O   CN  vC  f^vo 

M    M    M    HI  CM 

CO 


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00000 


174 


.a 
|£ 

H 
O 
— 

u 

I 


w  2 


O  B 
8  3 


go 

x 

H 


joj  sjnjipusdxg 
P?iojl  jo  :}a33  jaj 


•ajnjipuadxj 


q 

q 

o 

to 

tO 

o 

tO 

6 

M 

in 

oc 

co 

tO 

tO 

o 

00 

o 

o 

On 

00 

6 

CO 

4 

4© 

to 

4^ 

jo  aaqainx 


w  6 


u  Q 


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joj  3jnitpu3dx3 

JBJOX  JO  ';U33  J3J 


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CO 

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oo 


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jo  jbqcanj^ 


2 


On 

o 

co 

<* 

"* 

co 

CO 

CO 

CO 

to 

43= 

Expenditure  for 
Father's  Clothing. 

•Smqjoi3 
joj  sjTUipuadxg 
pjjox  JO  -JU33  J3 J 

q     q         ti-     to     o  to 

r^.       l>.            to       On       Cn  to 
CS          CO               CO         CM          0*  CN 

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33BJ3AV 

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o     to       od     vd      <m  vd 

M         nN               to        lO        to  NO 

•S3IITOIBJ 

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00                    00      00      00  no 

Total  Expenditure 
for  Clothing. 

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IP  JO  -JU33  J3<J 

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CO        CS              rj-        to        CO  no' 

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6         t*-»              CO        On        O  O 

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•S3IJTOBJ 

jo  j3qiun\T 

00        fx          00       00       00  vO 

Income. 

On        On              On        On        O  On 
On         On               On         On         On  On 
-T        \p              H         01         CO  to 
4%       4#=                          H  H 

4©    m    m  m 
2    2       2    2     c  2 

9     2         o      o     o  o 
o     o         o      o     o  o 

^"         lO               M          CN)          CO  to 
m       m               M"        H         M  M 
^      4©      4#  4© 

175 


TABLE  83.— CLOTHING.    AVERAGES  AND  PER  CENT.  OF  EXPEN- 
DITURE FOR  EACH  MEMBER  OF  THE  FAMILY,  FOR 
FAMILIES  WITHOUT  GIFTS.— BY  NATIONALITY. 


Income  $700  to  $799 


Total  Ex- 


Expenditure  for  Clothing  of : 


for 
Clothing. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Each  Boy. 

Each  Girl. 

thing. 

thing.) 

1 

1 

g 
I 

Nationality. 

cjj 

_c 

_c 

u5 

amili< 

amilii 

lount. 

forC 

amili< 

tount. 

forC 

ami  11 

lount. 

forC 

imilie 

ount. 

for.C 

fa 

a 

fa 

q 

3 

fa 

S 

3 

fa 

S 

3 

fa 

c 

3 

*o 

< 

< 

0 

< 

"o 

< 

0 

*o 

< 

u 

CO 

i 

k> 

it 
*> 

H 

u 

I 

u 

CO 

H 

u 

4) 

1 

*S 

3 
jo 

*S 

3 
,C 

| 

*o 

0 

i 

£ 

> 

£ 

E 

£ 

< 

3 

< 

Cen 

1 

< 

Cen 

3 

< 

Cen 

1 

< 

Cen 

u 

u 

Ih 

fa 

QM 

Ph 

A 

United  States  

ii 

$i3i-4C 

10 

$44-43 

34 

10 

$29.10 

22 

10 

$15-50 

12 

10 

$15-25 

12 

Teutonic  

4 

95-8i 

3 

42.44 

44 

3 

26.18 

28 

3 

10.93 

II 

2 

1346 

14 

Irish  

5 

125-05 

5 

43-8i 

35 

S 

24-99 

20 

3 

20.26 

16 

4 

16.40 

13 

Colored  

4 

H3-35 

4 

32.99 

35 

4 

28.62 

25 

3 

16.21 

14 

4 

ii-59 

10 

2 

125.48 

2 

3°-93 

24 

2 

18.18 

14 

2 

16.82 

13 

2 

16.27 

13 

14 

84.28 

14 

27.97 

33 

14 

18.01 

21 

13 

11.20 

13 

13 

11.25 

13 

7 

90.21 

7 

30.47 

33 

7 

21.60 

24 

4 

12.92 

14 

5 

12.89 

14 

Italian  

12 

91.22 

12 

39-89 

43 

12 

19-43 

21 

10 

12.83 

14 

11 

7.81 

9 

Total  

59 

102.79 

57 

36.98 

36 

57 

22.49 

22 

48 

13-68 

13 

51 

12.17 

12 

Income  $900  to  $999 


Total  Ex- 
penditure 

for 
Clothing. 

Expenditure  for  Clothing  of: 

Father. 

Mother. 

Each  Boy. 

Each  Girl. 

1 

bo 

a 

si 
— 

i 

3 

'% 

'2, 

1 

Nationality. 

a 

tj 

_C 

CO 

Z 

CO 

0 

imilif 

imili< 

ount, 

forC 

1 

ount. 

forC 

1 

ount. 

forC 

imili( 

ount. 

forC 

fa 

s 

fa 

S 

3 

fa 

£ 

3 

fa 

£ 

fa 

B 

3 

< 

< 

< 

0 

< 

ej 

< 

"S 

u 

V 

? 

u 

SP 

h 

O 
H 

13 

u 

0 
H 

0 

J 

Sf 

"o 

1 

2 

cu 

| 

"8 

HO 
£ 

> 

£ 

i 

0 

1 

-£ 

E 

1 

< 

1 

< 

Cen 

I 

< 

Cen 

1 

< 

Cen 

1 

< 

Cen 

Ih 

>- 

8 

O 
fa 

Ch 

c- 

£ 

8 

$158.12 

8 

$47-61 

30 

8 

$28.35 

18 

8 

$25.71 

16 

6 

$18.24 

11 

Teutonic  

10 

136.20 

9 

44-15 

32 

9 

33-63 

24 

9 

23.07 

17 

8 

22.21 

16 

3 

161.80 

3 

47-50 

30 

3 

39-33 

24 

3 

21.82 

13 

3 

19.77 

12 

1 

147-75 

1 

35-75 

24 

1 

21.20 

14 

1 

17.17 

12 

1 

17-43 

12 

4 

181.80 

4 

35-8o 

20 

4 

27.94 

16 

3 

26.47 

15 

4 

28.54 

16 

7 

121.36 

7 

35-8i 

29 

7 

28.69 

23 

7 

22.03 

18 

7 

13-23 

11 

6 

137.61 

6 

46.98 

34 

6 

29.51 

22 

4 

18.98 

14 

6 

17.11 

12 

0 

94-43 

9 

37-71 

40 

9 

22.13 

23 

8 

10.16 

II 

_8 

8-35 

9 

Total  

48 

135-67 

47 

41.92 

31 

47 

28.89 

21 

43 

20.63 

15 

43 

17.21 

13 

176 


TABLE  84.— UNDER-CLOTHED  FAMILIES.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND 

INCOME. 


Under-clothed.    Number  of  Families. 


Nationality. 

Num- 
ber OF 
Fami- 
lies. 

3>ouu 

TO 

$699 

TO 

$799 

08UU 

TO 

$899 

TO 

$999 

$1  000 

TO 

$1099 

Total, 

United  States  

6? 

6 

7 

2 

4 

19 

39 

2 

4 

I 

I 

8 

24 

3 

2 

I 

1 

7 

Colored  

28 

9 

I 

13 

14 

I 

1 

57 

*6 

4 

4 

21 

32 

5 

6 

4 

3 

18 

57 

14 

10 

4 

39 

Total  

3i8 

45 

41 

23 

16 

1 

126 

TABLE  85.- 


-UNDER-CLOTHED  FAMILIES.    SOURCES  OF  INCOME. 
BY  INCOME  AND  NATIONALITY. 


Nationality. 

$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

amber 
ilics. 

oer 

othed. 

Income 
from: 

imber 
lilies. 

«■£ 

_n  0 

Income 
from: 

jmber 
lilies. 

ber 
othed. 

Income 
from: 

Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Numl 
Under-cl 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Numl 
Under-cl 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

Total  Ni 
of  Fam 

Numl 
Under-cl 

Father 
Only. 

Other 
Sources. 

United  States  

II 

6 

6 

19 

7 

I 

6 

13 

2 

2 

Teutonic  

2 

I 

I 

7 

4 

4 

9 

I 

I 

4 

3 

3 

7 

2 

I 

1 

7 

I 

I 

11 

9 

7 

2 

6 

3 

2 

1 

8 

I 

I 

4 

3 

1 

3 

16 

~6 

5 

I 

14 

7 

6 

1 

12 

4 

I 

3 

Austrian,  etc  

6 

5 

9 

6 

2 

4 

9 

4 

4 

16 

14 

7 

14 

11 

7 

4 

12 

IO 

3 

7 

Total  

72 

45 

34 

79 

41 

19 

22 

73 

23 

5 

18 

$900  to  $999     $1000  to  $1099  Total. 


Nationality. 

Total  Number 
of  Families. 

Number 
Under-clothcd. 

Income 
from: 

Total  Number 
of  Families. 

Income 
from: 

Number 
of  Families. 

Number 
Under-clothcd. 

Income  from: 

in 

ff 

|  I 
O  O 

XI  O 

S  V 

s 

D 

If 

Father 
Only. 

Xo.  Perct 

Other 
Sources. 

No.  jPer  ct 

United  States  

Teutonic  

16 
1 1 

5 

2 

4 
9 
7 
9 

4 
I 

1 

3 
1 

8 

I 
I 

67 
39 
24 
2S 
14 
57 
32 
57 

T9 
8 

7 

l\ 

21 
18 
39 

8 

2 
4 
9 

12 
8 
20 

42 
25 

57 
70 

57 
44 
5i 

II 
6 
3 
4 
1 

9 

IO 

19 

58 

75 
43 
3i 
100 

43 
55 
49 

I 

1 

Bohemian  

4 
3 
4 

V 

3 

4 
2 
1 

6 
1 

6 

Total  

63 

16 

5 

11 

3i 

1 

I  j.. 

| 

318  j  126 

63 

5o 

63 

50 

  I       I       I       i       ,  I 

177 


TABLE  86.— UNDER-CLOTHED  FAMILIES.     NUMBER  REPORTING 
SURPLUS  AND  DEFICIT.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

Number  of  Under- 
clothed  Families. 

Number  Report- 
ing: 

clothed 

Number  Report- 
ing: 

Total  Number  of  Un- 
der-clothed Families. 

Number  Report- 
ing: 

Nationality. 

Balance  with- 
in $25.00 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Number  Under-' 
Families. 

Balance  with- 
in $25.00. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Balance  with- 
in $25.00. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 



United  States  

6 

2 

3 

2 

2 

I 

7 

4 

4 
I 

I 
2 

2 
I 

2 
I 

I 

1 
1 

3 
9 

6 

2 

1 

2 

1 

I 

I 

I 

5 

2 

2 

3 
1 

7 
6 

1  11 

I 

1 

I 

I 

I 

Bohemian  

1 

3 

2 

I 
I 

6 

4 

4 

Austrian,  etc  

5 

14 

1 
4 

4 
5 

5 

2 

4 

4 
5 

2 

4 
10 

2 

2 
9 

1 

Total  

45 



18 

16 

11 

41 

15 

20 

6 

23 

2 

18 

3 

$900  to  $999 

$1000  to  $1099 

Total. 

Number  Re- 
porting : 

Number  Re- 
porting : 

"i 

Families  Reporting: 

i 

S 

1 

|        Number  of  Under-clothed  Famil 

0 

ted  Famili 

6 

Total  Number  of  Under-clothed  Fa^ 

Balance 
within 
$25.00 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Nationality. 

Balance  within  $25.0 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Number  of  Under- clott 

Balance  within  $25.0 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

United  States. 

4 
1 

1 

I 

2 

1 

19 

8 

8 
4 

42 
50 
43 
47 
100 

14 

33 
23 

6 

2 

32 
25 
43 
31 

76 
66 
56 

$ 

2 

26 
25 
14 
23 

IO 
21 

I 

I 

7 
13 

I 
21 
l8 

39 

3 
4 

16 
12 
22 

I 

4 

1 

3 

3 
6 
1 

3 
6 

9 

3 
2 

Austrian,  etc  . 

3 
4 

1 
1 

2 
3 

- 

*8 

Total  

16 

5 

10 

1 

1 

7 

126 

40 

32 

65 

52 

21 

17 

178 


CLOTHING 


TABLE    87.— UNDER-CLOTHED    FAMILIES.    NUMBER    AND  PER 
CENT.  REPORTING  SURPLUS  AND  DEFICIT.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Number  of 
Under-clothed. 

Reporting. 

Balance  within 
$25.00. 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

Num-  1  Per 
ber.    j  Cent. 

Num-  j  Per 
ber.  Cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
Cent. 

$£nn  to  SwRnn 

$900  to  $999  

72 
79 
73 
63 
3i 

151 

73 
94 

45 
41 
23 
16 
1 

86 
23 
17 

18 

15 

2 

5 

33 
2 

5 

40 
37 
9 
3i 

38 
9 
30 

16 
20 
18 
IO 
1 

36 
18 
II 

35 
48 
78 
63 
100 

42 
78 
64 

„ 

6 

3 
1 

17 
3 
1 

25 
15 
13 
6 

20 
13 

6 

Total  

3i8 

126 

40 

32 

65 

52 

21 

17 

TABLE  88.— WASHING.    NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES 
REPORTING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  NATIONALITY 
AND  INCOME. 


Income. 


p  . 

O  ft. 
<  X 


Famtlles  with  Expenditure  of  : 


Laundry. 


Under  $10.   $10  to  $20. 


Families 


Over   j  Report-  ;     Families  with 
$20.       ing  Ex-  1  Expenditure 
penditure       Weekly  of: 


Over 

IOC. 


$600  to  $699 
$700  to  $799 
S800  to  $899 
$900  to  $999 
$1000  to  $1099 

$400  to  S599 
$600  to  $799 
$800  to  S899 
S900  to  $1099 
$1100  and  over 


72 
79 
73 
63 
3i 

25 
151 
73 
94 
48 


$8.36 
9.78 
10.99 
11.01 
13-53 

7-38 
9.10 
10.99 
11.84 
20.24 


56  78 
65 
55 
54 
12  l  49 

22  88 

107  71 

40  55 

46  49 

12  j  25 


15 

26 

30 
22 

i5 

3 
41 
30 
37 
22 


21 
33 
41 
35 
40 

12 
27 
41 
39 
46 


27  :  38  j  22 
45  157  137 
47  I  64  j  38 
8  I  43  7o  32 
11   20  65  14 


8  8 
13  28 


31 !  5 

47  1  8 


7 

8  j  10 

9  12 
10  I  2 

6  19 


44   11  44 

72  1 47  59  39  13 
47  64  I  38  I  52  9 


63  67 
40  83 


46  4Q 


1  16  I  17 
16  !  33  24  50 


179 


i8o 


CLOTHING 


TABLE  90.— WASHING:  LAUNDRY.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  SPEND- 
ING*GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

Number  of  Families. 

Number  of  Families. 

Number  of  Families. 

Nationality. 

<o 

With 

Week- 

With  Week- 

u 

With 

Week- 

t-, 

s  . 

ly  Expendi- 

ly Expen- 

ly Expendi- 

.t; >> 

ture  of : 

diture 

of: 

ture 

of: 

Total. 

With  Expen 
for  Laun* 

i 

o 

d 
o 

d 
o 

u 
> 
O 

Total, 

With  Expei 
for  Laun< 

J 
0 

d 
O 

JU 
O 

Total. 

With  Expen 
for  Laun 

ioc.  or  less. 

d 
0 

S 
>■ 

O 

II 

4 

2 

2 

19 

II 

9 

2 

13 

11 

8 

3 

4 

3 

3 

7 

3 

1 

2 

9 

8 

6 

2 

4 

7 

3 

3 

7 

5 

4 

1 

II 

2 

I 

6 

1 

1 

8 

I 

1 

4 

2 

2 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

3 

16 

II 

IO 

14 

14 

12 

2 

12 

IO 

8 

2 

Austrian,  etc  

6 

3 

3 

9 

7 

6 

I 

9 

9 

9 

16 

2 

I 

I 

14 

3 

2 

I 

12 

Total  

72 

27 

22 

5 

79 

45 

37 

¥~ 

~73~ 

47 

38 

9 

Nationality. 


United  States 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  . 

Bohemian... 

Russian  

Austrian,  etc 
Italian  

Total  


$900  to  $999. 


Number  of 
Families. 


-a  -3 

Eg 


15 
5 
3 
1 

4 
9 

5 

9  _JL 
63  43 


With 
Weekly 
Expen- 
diture of 


u 


$1000  to  $1099. 


Number  of 
Families. 


31 


5  3 


20 


With 
Weekly 

Expen- 
diture of 


IS 


J2  t/J 

as 

o 
H 


67 
39 
24 
28 

14 
57 
32 
57 


3i8 


Total. 


With  Expen- 
diture for 
Laundry. 


182 


68.7 
64.I 
50.0 
17.8 
85-7 
87.7 
78.I 
12.3 


With 
Weekly 
Expendi- 
ture of 
ioc.  or 
less. 


31 
21 
IO 

3 

IO 

41 

22 

5 


57-o 


143 


l8l 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


6.  HEALTH. 

Expenditures  for  the  maintenance  of  health  and  the  cure  of 
disease  are  so  intermittent  in  the  history  of  any  family  that  it  is 
not  possible  to  treat  them  like  the  regularly  recurring  expenditure 
for  food  and  rent.  The  average  of  the  expenditures  of  a  large 
number  of  families  on  account  of  sickness  must  strike  a  point  that 
marks  the  mean  of  what  is  spent  neither  by  families  where  sickness 
prevails  nor  by  families  free  from  serious  illness.  Nevertheless 
the  averages,  including  a  considerable  number  of  families  of  each 
kind,  may  serve  as  an  indication  of  the  degree  to  which  expenditure 
for  this  purpose  increases  as  income  increases.  As  may  be  seen 
from  Table  91  (page  186)  the  average  expenditure  for  health 
ranges  from  $13.78  for  the  families  with  incomes  between  $600 
and  $700  to  $23.30  for  families  with  incomes  between  $900  and 
$1000.  It  falls  to  $14.80  in  the  $1000  group,  and  rises,  on  ac- 
count of  a  few  cases  where  the  amount  is  very  high,  to  $40.18 
for  the  $1100  families  (Table  15,  page  70). 

The  percentage  of  total  expenditure  that  is  devoted  to  this 
purpose  likewise  fluctuates.  It  is  2.1  in  the  $600  group,  1.9  in 
the  $700  group,  2.7  and  2.6  in  the  next  two  income-groups,  but 
falls  to  1.5  for  the  $1000  families.  As  between  nationalities,  it 
does  not  seem  possible  to  make  safe  generalizations  from  the 
returns,  by  reason  of  the  irregularities  in  the  distribution  of 
families  with  exceptional  burdens  of  sickness  to  carry. 

More  light  may  perhaps  be  had  by  counting  the  number  of 
families  reporting  certain  significant  details.  (See  Table  94, 
page  189.)  Thirty-seven  of  the  318  families,  or  1 1.6  per  cent., 
report  no  expenditure  on  account  of  health.  These  cases  are 
distributed  pretty  evenly  among  the  income-groups,  indicating 
that  it  was  absence  of  sickness,  rather  than  poverty  that  prevented 
the  outlay.  The  only  income-group  where  every  family  reports 
expenditure  for  this  purpose  is  the  $1 100  group.  The  families 
not  spending  on  this  account  are  most  numerous  among  the 
Americans,  where  13  of  the  total  37  are  found.  No  Bohemians, 
only  1  Italian  family,  and  2  Irish,  are  reported  in  the  column  of 
no  expenditure. 

Table  93  (page  188)  shows  more  clearly  how  expenditure  for 

182 


HEALTH 


the  cure  of  sickness  increases  as  income  increases.  The  table 
shows  the  number  of  families,  by  income  and  nationality,  that 
report  spending  less  than  $10,  from  |io  to  I20,  and  so  on.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  number  of  families  reporting  the  smaller 
sums  is  greatest  in  the  lower  income-groups  and  vice  versa.  Of 
the  132  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $800  that 
report  expenditure  for  health  48.5  per  cent,  spend  less  than  $10,  as 
against  36.6  per  cent,  of  the  82  families  with  incomes  of  from  $900 
to  $1 100  that  report  expenditure  for  health.  On  the  other  hand, 
expenditures  of  $75  and  over  are  reported  by  13.4  per  cent,  of 
the  families  in  the  upper  income  classes  ($900  to  $1099),  and  by 
but  3.8  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  lower  income-classes  ($600 
to  $799).* 

This  disparity  is  not  due  to  relative  infrequency  of  serious 
illness  among  the  poorer  families.  The  third  column  of  Table  94 
(page  189)  shows  that  such  cases  are  to  be  found  in  just  about  the 
same  frequency  all  along  the  line.  The  fourth  column,  "free 
medical  aid/'  suggests  that  the  dispensary  and  the  free  hospital 
take  the  place,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  medical  aid  paid  for  entirely 
by  the  family.  The  percentage  of  families  reporting  free  medical 
assistance  diminishes  from  40  per  cent,  for  the  $600  families  to  16 
per  cent,  for  the  $1000  families. f 

*  The  reports  of  the  families  with  incomes  below  $600  and  above  $1100  show 
the  following  distribution  of  expenditures  for  health: 


Income  Income 
Expenditure.                          $400  to  $599.       $1100  to  $1599. 

Families.  Families. 

None                                            4  4 

Under    $10  10  14 

$10   to   $20                                  7  7 

20   to     30                                  3  5 

3°   to     4o                                 o  3 

40  to     50                                 1  2 

50   to     75   2 

75   to   100   1 

Over      100   3 


25  4i 
Of  the  three  families  spending  more  than  $100  one  reports  paying  $109,  one  $240, 
and  one,  with  income  of  $1500,  reports  expenses  of  $600  for  the  mother  in  the 
hospital.  Such  expenditures  are  out  of  the  question  with  the  smaller  incomes.  One 
of  these  families  with  income  of  $1600  reports  that  the  son,  20  years  of  age,  a  medi- 
cal student,  prescribes  for  the  family. 

t  Little  light  is  thrown  by  the  schedules  on  the  prevalence  of  the  patent-medicine 
habit.    One  woman  reported  buving  a  75-cent  bottle  of  stomach  medicine  every 

183 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  reports  regarding  dentistry  indicate  a  deplorable  lack  of 
attention  to  the  teeth  on  the  part  of  the  large  majority  in  all 
income-groups.  Only  51  out  of  the  318  families,  or  16  per  cent., 
report  paying  for  dentistry.  The  percentage  of  families  that 
do  pay  the  dentist  increases,  however,  with  increase  of  in- 
come. Only  1  in  9  of  the  |6oo  families  reports  this  expenditure, 
as  against  1  in  4  of  the  $1000  families.  The  details  may  be  seen 
in  the  fifth  column  of  Table  94  (page  189).  The  amount  paid 
for  dentistry  varies  from  50  cents  for  pulling  a  tooth,  to  $20 
or  more  in  exceptional  cases. 

An  examination  of  the  cases  of  serious  illness  shows  how  such 
an  illness  draws  on  the  slender  resources  of  the  family.*  An 
American  family,  for  instance,  in  the  $700  income-group,  reports 
spending  $41.60  for  a  child  who  did  not  live,  and  for  the  mother, 
who  suffers  from  nervous  prostration.  In  another  case  in  the  same 
income-group  an  expenditure  of  $41.00  is  reported,  with  the  state- 
ment that  the  mother  had  pleuropneumonia,  following  the  birth  of 
a  child.  These  families  spent  6  per  cent,  of  their  income,  or  three 
weeks'  wages  of  the  man,  for  relief  in  sickness.  Items  of  $31.00, 
$24.50,  $33.00,  $53.00  must  involve  an  even  heavier  burden  on  the 
families  with  from  $600  to  $700  that  report  them.  In  many  cases 
where  these  expenditures  on  health-account  are  high,  there  is  evi- 

week,  another  reports  buying  a  25-cent  bottle  of  Castoria  every  month.  For  the 
most  part,  however,  the  medicine  is  prescribed  by  a  visiting  physician  or  at 
the  dispensary. 

*  The  diseases  reported  include  most  of  those  prevalent  in  New  York  City. 
The  enumeration  of  them  would  throw  no  special  light  on  our  present  problem,  for 
there  seems  to  be  no  necessary  connection  between  specific  diseases  and  particular 
nationalities  or  income-groups,  and  the  number  of  cases  of  any  one  disease  must, 
with  no  more  than  318  families,  necessarily  be  small.  Only  12  deaths  are  reported, 
but  some  were  doubtless  overlooked,  since  no  point-blank  question  in  the 
schedule  relates  to  this  point.  Among  the  specifications  most  frequently  reported 
are  the  following,  the  318  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1100  being 
considered: 

Pneumonia  13  cases 


It  is  possible  that  tuberculosis  was  sometimes  reported  under  another  name. 


Accidents  

Measles  

Tuberculosis  

Diphtheria  

Typhoid  fever  

Nervous  prostration, 
Female  disorder? . . . 
Rheumatism  


11 
7 
7 
6 
6 
6 
5 


184 


HEALTH 


dent  curtailment  of  expenditure  in  other  directions.  An  abnor- 
mally low  expenditure  for  the  man's  clothing  appears  in  one 
schedule,  wherein  it  is  stated  also  that  the  man  was  laid  up 
in  the  hospital  for  several  weeks.  In  other  cases  where  doctor's 
bills  are  large,  expenditures  for  amusement  and  recreation  and 
for  miscellaneous  purposes  disappear. 

To  judge  from  all  these  data,  it  seems  that  the  liability  to 
disease  does  not  vary  greatly  in  the  different  income-groups 
represented  in  our  schedules,  nor  in  different  nationalities,  but 
that  the  resources  available  for  combatting  disease  are  much 
more  limited  among  families  with  only  $700  or  $800  to  live 
on.  These  families  are  accordingly  thrown  upon  dispensaries 
and  other  free  medical  assistance,  or  else  their  members  are 
left  to  succumb  to  the  attacks  of  disease  without  adequate 
medical  aid.  If  the  family  undertakes  to  make  better  provision 
at  its  own  charges,  the  result  is  a  lowering  of  the  standard  of 
living  at  some  other  point.  An  income  of  less  than  $800  does  not 
permit  expenditures  sufficient  to  care  properly  for  the  health  of 
the  family. 


185 


*MU33  J3J 


•junouiv 

33UJ3Ay 


•S3I|IUJT;iJ  JO 

jsquin^ 


00 
CO 


•junouiy  ' 


CO 

cm 

CO 

to 

M 

CM 

10 

q> 

q 

in 

CM 

Tj- 

CM 

o 

ON 

CO 

CM 

o\ 

CO 

co 

CM 

CM 

C<0 

CM 

CO 

CO 

•S3IJIUIBJ  JO 


•junouiv 


CO 

o 

O 

CO 

M 

CO 

lO 

CO 

ON 

CM 

co 

6 

o\ 

co 

ON 

Cm" 

CO 

CM 

"* 

M 

•saiiraiBj  jo 


*1U33  J3J 


co 
ro 


lunouiy 

3St3J3AV 


•S3I[IXU^  j  JO 


*-}U33  J3J 


•}unorav 

33UJ3Ay 


o 

CO 

vo 

CO 

XT) 

CO 

On 

4 

<* 

CO 

co 

H 

1-1 

M 

asqran^ 


1 86 


HEALTH 


TABLE  92.— HEALTH.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPEN- 
DITURE OF  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME  AND 
NATIONALITY. 

(A)  By  Income, 


Number  of  Families  Reporting  Expenditure  of: 


Income. 

Num- 
ber OF 
Fam- 
ilies. 

No  Ex- 
pendi- 
ture. 

Under 
$10 

$10 

to 
$20 

$20 

to 
$30 

$30 

to 

$40 

$40 

to 

$50 

$50 

to 
$75 

$75 
to 
$100 

Over 
$100 

$600  to  $699  

72 

7 

34 

12 

II 

4 

I 

2 

I 

$700  to  $799  

79* 

11 

30 

20 

8 

4 

3 

I 

I 

$800  to  $899  

73 

7 

28 

20 

5 

4 

1 

4 

I 

3 

$900  to  $999  

63 

7 

16 

16 

10 

4 

2 

3 

4 

1 

$1000  to  $1099  

31 

5 

14 

5 

3 

1 

3 

Total  

318* 

37 

122 

73 

37 

16 

8 

12 

7 

5 

(B)  By  Nationality. 


Nationality. 

Total 
Num- 
ber OF 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number  of  Families  Reporting  Expenditure  of  : 

No  Ex- 
pendi- 
ture. 

Under 
$10 

$10 

to 
$20 

$20 
to 
$30 

$30 

to 

$40 

$40 

to 

$50 

$50 
to 
$75 

$75 
to 
$100 

Over 
$100 

United  States  

67* 

13 

27 

J3 

4. 

3 

3 

1 

I 

I 

Teutonic  

39 

7 

12 

13 

1 

2 

3 

I 

Irish  

24 

2 

7 

8 

4 

2 

I 

28 

4 

15 

6 

1 

2 

Bohemian  

14 

4 

3 

3 

3 

1 

57 

6 

12 

14 

11 

4 

2 

5 

2 

I 

32 

4 

11 

6 

4 

3 

2 

2 

57 

1 

34 

10 

9 

1 

1 

I 

Total  

318* 

37 

122 

73 

37 

16 

8 

12 

7 

5 

*  One  case  amount  not  specified. 

187 


n 
I 

o 

SI 
< 

w 
> 

o 

Pn 

o 

w 
3 

H 
t— t 

P 
W 
X 

w 
o 

1—1 

b  • 


Per  Cent.  < 
Families 
Spending, 

NO 
NO 
CO 

NO 

»o 

IN 

00 

UO 
M 

On 

CO 

On 
■4 

M 

CO 

NO 

CO 

^_ 

CO 
H 

On 
| 

ojS 

Per  Cent, 
all  Famil 

q 

On 

CO 

CO 

CO 

o» 

CO 

H 

o 

oo 

o 

H 

8 

a 

M 

CO 

CN| 

CNJ 

CO 

CO 

NO 

rj- 

CO 

o 

Numbe 
Famili 

H 

O 
CO 

M 

CO 

CO 

o 

NO 

M 

Per  Cent 
Familie 
Spendin 

T^- 

CNI 

CO 

6 

CO 

NO 

O" 

\r> 
M 

H 
o* 

VO 

NO 

CO 

6 

00 

NO 

On 
On 

OS 

Per  Cent 
all  Famil 

o 

rf 

CO 

CO 

°? 

NO 

00 

On 

g 
§ 

00 

if} 

d 

CO 

IN 

NO 

lO 

NO' 

6 

Per  Cent 
Famili< 
Spendin 

m 

00 

<N 

CNJ 

O 

NO 

q 

co 

H 

to 

H 

00 

d 

oo 

M 

On 

00 
CO 

On 
On 

ee 

8 

o 

nt. 
nilii 

o 

N 

NO 

CO 

NO 

CO 

CO 

CI 

On 

CO 

CN| 

l-i 
IN 

H 

6 

NO 

t>» 

CO 

© 

NO 

w 

pn  ca 

imbcr 
imilie 

00 

-«* 

NO 

IN 
CO 

On 

00 

IN 

H 

U") 

fa 

O  « 

I 

< 


§  :::::::    :  :    :  : 

2   ... 

*3  :'::!:          '  i     :  • 

c  :     :                   :  :  : 

a  .......     .  .     .  ; 

&  i     o     o     0     o     v>    o      •  • 

«  0«N|CO-^-»Ot^OO  oo 

•ts'2oooooio>  *cO> 

i>Jri-icNlcoTi"iot^/-s  ►-T  co  X 


1 88 


HEALTH 


TABLE  94.— HEALTH.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPEN- 
DITURE, SERIOUS  SICKNESS,  FREE  MEDICAL  AID, 
DENTISTRY.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


S600 

to  $699 

$700 

to  S799 

$800 

TO 

$899 

hi 

oEx- 
ealth. 

| 

•6 
< 

ture 

I 

0  Ex- 
ealth. 

1 

< 

ture 

0  Ex- 
ealth. 

3 

0 

< 

ture 

Nationality. 

mbe 
lies. 

•3  a 

Is 

a 

u 

ndi 
ntist 

mbe 

lies. 

=  PC 

■5  u 

Seri. 
SS. 

u 

endi 

ntist 

mbe 

cx 
■S 

Seri. 
SS. 

53.2 

Total  Nu 
Famii 

amilies  wi 
enditure  fc 

Cases  of 
Illne 

Free  Medi 

With  Exp. 
for  De: 

I'E 
"dfa 

o 

amilies  wi 
;nditure  fc 

Cases  of 
Illne 

Free  Medi 

With  Exp 
for  De 

Total  Nu 

Famil 

amilies  wi 
jnditure  fc 

Cases  of 
Illne 

Free  Med 

With  Exp. 
for  De 

—  — 

fa  a 

fa  0. 

United  States  

II 

2 

6 

3 

19 

5 

10 

8 

2 

13 

4 

6 

7 

I 

4 

4 

2 

7 

2 

5 

3 

9 

7 

6 

2 

4 

I 

3 

2 

I 

7 

4 

1 

I 

7 

4 

4 

I 

II 

2 

3 

6 

6 

2 

1 

3 

8 

5 

5 

2 

4 

3 

2 

I 

3 

2 

2 

3 

2 

1 

16 

I 

9 

8 

3 

14 

.  1 

12 

7 

3 

12 

1 

8 

5 

4 

6 

I 

4 

2 

i 

9 

7 

4 

3 

9 

2 

5 

2 

2 

16 

9 

4 

2 

14 

6 

2 

3 

12 

** 

5 

Total  

72 

7 

4i 

29 

8 

79 

* 

47 

30 

12 

73 

7 

42 

3° 

12 

Nationality. 


Total. 


$900  to  $999. 


o 

hi 

I  «  . 
_=  go 

H 
2 


23 

Ik 

c 

18  S 


3  1  £ 
< 


rtfal«3 

5  ill 


r' 

rt 

u 


United  States   16 

Teutonic   n 

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc  

Italian  


63 


$1000  to  $1099. 


Total. 


III 


1118*1 

£  £  11 

fa  a 


54 


IQ 


31 


£5 


189 


falls 

1  CO  4) 

fa 


5    7  3i8j  37 


170 


113 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  95.— HEALTH.   NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  RE- 
PORTING NO  EXPENDITURE,  SERIOUS  SICKNESS,  FREE 
MEDICAL  AID,  DENTISTRY.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 


$400  to  $499. 

$500  to  $599. 

$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

$900  to  $999. 
$1000  to  $1099. 
$1100  to  $1199. 
$1200  to  $1299. 
$1300  to  $1399. 
$1400  and  over, 

Total  

$400  to  $599. 
$600  to  $799. 
$800  to  $899. 
$990  to  $1099. 
$1100  and  over 


Num- 
ber OF 
Fami- 
lies. 


Without 
Expenditure 
for  Health. 


17 
72 

79 
73 
63 
3i 
18 
8 
8 
14 


39i 

25 
151 
73 
94 
48 


46 

4 
18 

7 

12 
5 


13 
18 
10 

14 
10 
11 
16 

25 
25 
7 


11.8 

16 
12 
10 
13 


Cases  of 

Serious 

Illness. 


5 
9 
41 
47 
42 
34 
*S 
9 
3 
5 
7 


217 

14 
88 
42 

49 
24 


63 
53 
57 
59 
58 
54 
48 

50 
38 
63 
5o 


55 

56 
5S 
5S 
52 
50 


Free 
Medical 
Aid. 


6 
7 
29 
30 
30 
19 
5 
3 
1 
1 
1 


132 

13 
59 
30 
24 
6 


75 
41 

40 

38 
41 
30 
16 
16 
13 
13 
7 


34 

52 
39 
41 
26 

13 


I90 


INSURANCE 


7,  INSURANCE. 

A  majority  of  the  families  included  in  our  tables  report  ex- 
penditure for  insurance  of  persons,  and  nearly  half  report  insurance 
on  property.  (See  Tables  96-99,  pages  195-197).  In  exact  figures, 
191  out  of  the  318  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and 
$1100,  or  60  per  cent.,  pay  for  life-insurance,  and  143,  or  45  per 
cent.,  pay  for  insurance  on  property.   The  insurance  on  the  lives 


Diagram  15. — Number  of  families  carrying  insurance  on  persons,  in  each  nation 
ality-group.    (See  Table  97.) 

of  persons  is  for  the  most  part  of  the  "industrial"  type;  that  is, 
for  a  weekly  payment  of  a  fixed  sum, — 10  to  25  cents  in  most 
cases, — an  amount,  determined  by  the  age  of  the  insured,  is  paid 
to  the  family  after  death.  The  amount  of  the  policy  is  usually 
about  $100  for  adults  and  $50  for  children.  The  money  received 
from  the  insurance  company  usually  goes  to  pay  the  funeral  ex- 
penses attendant  on  the  death,  so  that  it  is  more  properly 
described  as  burial-insurance  than  as  life-insurance.  A  limited 
number  of  families,  as  will  be  seen  later  (page  233),  do  carry  a 

191 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


real  life  or  endowment  policy  of  $500  or  even  more.  Some  56 
cases  are  reported  among  the  318  families  under  consideration. 
In  general,  however,  the  insurance  is  not  a  provision  for  a  rainy 
day,  but  a  provision  for  meeting  a  single  contingent  expense; 
viz.,  the  cost  of  burying  the  dead. 

At  the  outset  of  the  inquiry  as  to  the  average  expenditure 
for  insurance,  we  are  met  by  a  striking  difference  in  the  customs  of 
the  different  nationalities  in  regard  to  insurance.    (See  Table  97, 


Co 


60 


n 


Tin  i  b 


Diagram  16. — Number  of  families  carrying  insurance  on  property  in  each  nation- 
ality group,    (See  Table  97.) 

page  196).  Americans,  the  Germanic  peoples,  the  Irish  and  the 
colored,  insure  almost  every  member  of  the  family,  but  less 
frequently  insure  property.  Of  the  1 58  families  of  these  nation- 
alities, persons  were  insured  in  139  cases,  property  in  51  cases. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Russians  and  Austro-Hungarians  carry 
insurance  as  a  rule  on  property,  and  as  the  exception  on  persons. 
Of  the  89  Russian  and  Austro-Hungarian  families,  79  carried  in- 
surance on  property,  and  21  on  persons.  In  other  words,  in  the 
first  group  personal  insurance  was  carried  by  88  per  cent,  of  the 
families,  insurance  on  property  by  32  per  cent.;  in  the  second  group 

192 


INSURANCE 


personal  insurance  was  carried  by  24  per  cent,  of  the  families  and 
insurance  on  property  by  89  per  cent.  The  Bohemians  report  in 
most  cases  insurance  of  both  kinds;  of  14  families,  1 3  report  insur- 
ance on  property,  1 1  insurance  on  persons.  The  Italians,  on  the 
contrary,  report  no  insurance  of  any  kind  in  the  majority  of  cases. 
Of  the  57  Italian  families  18,  or  about  one-third,  carry  insurance  on 
persons ;  only  2  report  insurance  on  property. 

The  lack  of  insurance  on  persons  is  compensated  in  a  measure 
by  membership  in  fraternal  organizations.  These  societies 
usually  give  to  members  sick-benefits  besides  making  provision 
for  burial.  The  Russian  and  Austrian  families  are  those  most 
frequently  reporting  membership  in  these  benefit  societies,  as 
appears  from  the  table  which  follows: 

Families  Reporting 
Families  Reporting     both  Membership 
Membership  in  a      and  Insurance  on 


Nationality.                  Benefit  Society.  Persons. 

United  States                       7  6 

Teutonic                             8  8 

Irish                                   1  1 

Colored                                3  3 

Bohemian                            8  8 

Russian  26  4 

Austrian  13  3 

Italian                                3  2 


69  35 

These  figures  indicate  that  the  benefit  society  is  only  a  supple- 
ment to  life-insurance,  save  for  the  Russians  and  Austrians  (the 
Jewish  families),  with  whom  it  is  a  substitute.* 

With  these  differences  in  national  custom  in  mind  we  may 
look  at  the  averages  and  percentages  of  expenditures  for  insurance 
(Table  96,  page  195).  For  all  nationalities  combined,  the  average 
expenditure  for  insurance  rises  from  $13.05,  or  2  per  cent,  of  total 
expenditure,  for  families  in  the  $600  income-group,  to  $25.46,  or 
2.5  per  cent,  of  total  expenditure,  for  families  in  the  $1000  group. 
For  the  American  families  the  average  is  $25.26,  or  3.8  per  cent, 
in  the  $600  group,  and  $40.72,  or  3.8  per  cent,  again  in  the  $1000 

*  Among  the  Italians  it  is  not  infrequent  for  a  group  of  relatives  and  friends  to 
contribute  $4  or  $5  apiece  for  funeral  expenses  when  a  death  occurs  within 
their  circle.    This  might  be  considered  a  form  of  fraternal  insurance. 

13  193 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


group.  For  the  Russians,  the  averages  for  the  $600  and  $1000 
families  are  $4.83  and  $8.17  respectively,  and  the  percentage  of 
total  expenditure  0.8  in  both  cases. 

Variation  in  regard  to  insurance  with  rise  of  income  appears  in 
the  data  presented  in  Tables  97  and  98  (page  196).  The 
number  of  families  carrying  insurance  on  persons  and  on  property 
does  not  increase  appreciably  as  the  income  increases,  but  the 
number  of  persons  insured  per  family  does  increase,  as  may  be 
seen  in  the  following  summary: 


Separating  the  two  groups  of  nationalities  already  distinguished, 
we  find  that  in  the  first  group  (Americans,  Teutonic  nations,  Irish, 
colored)  out  of  831  persons  included  in  158  families,  585  are  in- 
sured, or  an  average  of  3.7  persons  per  family.  Among  the  Rus- 
sians, Austrians  and  Italians,  only  86  out  of  71 1  persons  included 
in  146  families  are  insured,  or  an  average  of  0.6  per  family. 
Among  the  families  of  this  second  group  it  is  usually  the  father 
only  who  is  insured. 

The  question  of  the  expensiveness  of  the  insurance  provided  for 
the  money  paid  in  premiums  lies  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present 
report.* 

It  is  very  evident  from  our  data,  however,  that  provision  for  the 
expenses  of  the  last  sickness  and  burial  constitutes  an  essential  part 
of  the  American  standard  of  living,  and  that  most  families  will  go 
without  many  comforts  in  order  to  keep  up  their  insurance.  Even 
among  the  25  poorest  families,  with  incomes  below  $600,  most 
of  them  over-crowded  and  under-fed,  6  report  insurance  on 
persons,  while  the  American  families  with  but  from  $600  to  $700 
to  spend,  contrive  to  pay  $25  or  $30  a  year  for  insurance. 

*  See  S.  E.  Forman's  study  of  Industrial  Insurance  in  the  Bulletin  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Labor,  No.  67,  Nov.,  1906. 


Income. 


Average  Number  of  Average  Number  of 
Persons  in  Family.      Persons  Insured. 


$ 600  to  $699.. 

700  to  799. . 

800  to  899. . 

900  to  999. . 

1000  to  1099.  . 


 4-9  1-7 


194 


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•95 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  97.— INSURANCE.    NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  CARRYING  IN- 
SURANCE ON  PERSONS  AND  ON  PROPERTY.— 
BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


Number  of  Families  Carrying  Insurance. 

fi 

0 

0 

0 

0 

• 

W  .£ 

H 

On 

H 

ON 

H 

On 

H 

On 

H 

On 

0 

UMB 
[LIES 

O 
O 

ON 

§ 

ON 

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OO 

On 

g 

O 

On 

O 
O 
O 

O 

3 
0 

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U 

Nationality. 

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&° 

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0. 

g  . 

a 

0  . 

A, 

0  . 

c 

6. 

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6. 

a 

0  . 

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erty 

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ol 

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Ph 

w 

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u 
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u 

Ph 

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O 

United  States  

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II 

4 

17 

1 

II 

5 

16 

5 

7 

I 

62 

16 

92.6 

23-9 

39 

3 

2 

7 

4 

6 

4 

II 

3 

8 

6 

35 

19 

78.9 

48.7 

24 

4 

1 

7 

2 

7 

4 

4 

1 

22 

8 

73-4 

26.7 

28 

11 

5 

6 

2 

1 

2 

1 

20 

8 

7i-5 

28.6 

14 

3 

2 

2 

3 

3 

4 

4 

13 

11 

72.9 

78.6 

57 

2 

13 

.3 

13 

2 

10 

1 

9 

1 

6 

6 

5i 

10.5 

89-5 

32 

5 

! 

5 

8 

4 

6 

1 

1 

15 

28 

46.8 

77-5 

57 

4 

1 

8 

3 

1 

2 

18 

2 

31.6 

3-5 

Total  

318 

38 

33 

53 

33 

37 

35 

43 

28 

20 

14 

191 

143 

60.0 

45-° 

TABLE  98.— INSURANCE.    AVERAGE  NUMBER   OF  PERSONS  IN- 
SURED.—BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


Averages  of  Number  of  Persons  ln  Family 
and  of  Number  of  Persons  Insured. 


W  c/j 

BS 

$600  to 

$700  to 

$800  to 

$900  to 

$1000  to 

Total. 

Nationality. 

Sri 

$699 

$799 

$899 

$999 

$1099 

g 

g 

d 

c 

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<UT3 

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H 

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S  3 

a  3 

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II 

II 

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z 

II 

zr 

II 

II 

United  States  

67 

5-o 

3-2 

5-3 

3-9 

5.0 

3-2 

5-2 

4-3 

5-4 

4-7 

5-2 

3-9 

Teutonic  

39 

4-7 

3-5 

5-o 

4.0 

5-i 

3-o 

5-i 

3-3 

5-o 

2-5 

5- 

3-2 

24 

6.0 

5-5 

5-3 

4-3 

4.9 

3-4 

5-4 

4.0 

5-o 

5-3 

4.0 

28 

5-4 

3-2 

5-5 

4-7 

5-2 

3-8 

5-5 

4.0 

5-o 

4.0 

5-4 

3-8 

14 

4-5 

1.0 

6.0 

5-o 

5-7 

3-6 

5-2 

4.2 

5-3 

3-4 

57 

5-i 

O.I 

5-i 

5-4 

0.25 

5-o 

0.2 

4-8 

0.2 

5-i 

O.I 

32 

4-3 

4.8 

1.1 

5-o 

1.8 

4.9 

1.0 

6.0 

1.0 

4.8 

1.0 

57 

4-6 

0.8 

4.6 

1.1 

4-5 

0.7 

5-i 

O.I 

4.5 

1.0 

4.6 

0.8 

Total  

318 

4.9 

i-7 

5-i 

2.6 

5-o 

2.2 

5-i 

2-5 

5-o 

2-3 

S-o 

2-3 

196 


INSURANCE 


TABLE  99. — INSURANCE.    NUMBER   AND   PER  CENT.   OF  FAMI- 
LIES INSURED,  AND  AVERAGE  NUMBER  OF  PERSONS 
INSURED— BY  INCOME. 


Number  of 


Per  Cent,  of 


INCOME. 


Nun-  I  Insured. 

ber  of  |  

Fami- 
lies. 


Average  Number 
of  Persons. 


On 
Per- 
sons. 


On  i 
Prop-  j 
erty. 


On  Per- 
sons. 


On  Prop-        In       ,  Insured. 
erty      <  Family. 


$400  to  $499  

8 

2 

1 

25.0 

12.5 

5-4 

I 

1  13 

17 

4- 

9 

23-5 

53-o 

5-o 

0.6 

72 

38 

33 

52.8 

45-8 

4.9 

i-7 

S700  to  $799  

79 

53 

33 

67.1 

41.8 

5-1 

2.6 

$800  to  $899  

73 

37 

35 

50.7 

4S.0 

5-o 

2.2 

63 

43 

28 

68.2 

44-4 

5-i 

*s 

31 

20 

!4 

64.6 

45-1 

5.o 

2:3 

Si  100  to  $1199  

18 

4 

II 

22.2 

61.0 

5-o 

2.7 

8 

2 

5 

25.0 

62.5 

5-4 

2.1 

S1300  to  $1399  

8 

2 

4 

25.0 

50.0 

4.9 

3-3 

$1400  and  over  

M 

5 

U 

35-7 

78.6 

4.6 

2.0 

Total  

i 

391 

210 

184 

53-7 

47.1 

S-o 

2.2 

197 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


8.    SUNDRY  MINOR  ITEMS. 

Under  this  head  are  grouped  the  items  of  the  schedule  not 
already  considered;  viz.,  Furniture,  Dues  and  Contributions, 
Recreation  and  Amusement,  Education  and  Reading,  and  Mis- 
cellaneous. They  represent  expenditures  for  the  satisfaction 
of  what  the  economist  calls  "culture-wants";  that  is,  wants 
arising  out  of  the  desire  for  intellectual,  social  and  aesthetic 
gratifications,  as  distinguished  from  wants  connected  with  the 
mere  prolongation  of  physical  existence.  They  include  also  some 
physical  satisfactions,  like  tobacco  and  soda  water,  which  are  not 
indispensable  to  life.  Largely  these  headings  include  the  cost 
of  that  which  makes  life  worth  living. 

In  considering  these  details,  and  especially  in  remarking  on 
the  small  amount  that  the  ordinary  family  has  left  for  such  ex- 
penditures, it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  much  that  satisfies  the 
extra-physical  wants  can  be  had  free  of  cost.  Public  schools 
provide  education  for  the  children,  the  parks  and  playgrounds 
give  opportunity  for  fresh  air  and  recreation,  the  intercourse 
with  kindred  and  neighbors  gives  social  satisfaction,  and  the  ever- 
varying  pageant  of  street-life,  sordid  though  it  often  is,  gives 
constant  novelty  and  diversion.  Nevertheless,  there  are  im- 
portant needs  for  which  no  gratuitous  provision  has  been  made, 
and  the  amount  of  expenditure  for  these  purposes  is  an  indication, 
so  far  as  it  goes,  of  the  standard  of  culture  attained,  and  of  the 
opportunities  for  raising  it. 

Considering  then,  the  expenditures  for  this  group  collect- 
ively (Table  100,  page  199),  it  is  instructive  to  note  that  they  con- 
stitute but  7.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  expenditures  of  the  families 
with  incomes  between  $600  and  $700,  and  1 1 .4  per  cent,  of  the 
expenditures  of  the  families  with  between  $1000  and  $1100. 
The  average  amount  spent  is,  for  the  lowest  income-group, 
$47.55,  and  for  the  highest,  $  1 14.59.  The  amount  and  the  per- 
centage increase  constantly  with  each  rise  in  the  income-scale, 
showing  that  the  desires  for  such  satisfactions  as  we  are  con- 
sidering always  tend  to  push  ahead  of  the  means  available  for 
satisfying  them,  and  that  on  the  smallest  incomes  the  margin 
left  for  them,  after  supplying  a  bare  physical  subsistence,  is 
narrow  enough. 


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199 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


i.  Furniture  and  Furnishings. — Table  101  (page  202) 
shows  the  average  expenditure  for  furniture  by  income  and 
nationality,  and  also  the  number  of  families  reporting  no  ex- 
penditure for  this  purpose.  The  average  amount,  taking  into 
account  only  the  families  that  report  this  expenditure,  is  $6.22 
for  the  $600  families,  and  $  12.89  for  the  families  with  incomes 
of  between  $1000  and  $1100.  The  increase  is  not  very  regular, 
however,  counting  by  $100  stages.  Yet  the  average  expenditure 
of  the  140  families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $800  is  $7.56, 
and  that  of  the  90  families  with  incomes  of  between  $900  and 
?uoo  is  $13.20.  The  count  of  families  spending  given  amounts 
(Tables  102  and  103,  pages  203-204)  shows  more  plainly  than  the 
table  of  averages  the  tendency  to  larger  expenditures  in  the 
higher  income-classes.  Of  the  families  in  the  $600  and  $700  in- 
come-groups, 80  per  cent,  spend  less  than  $10  for  furniture.  Of 
the  families  in  the  $900  and  $1000  groups,  58  per  cent,  spend  less 
than  ?  10,  and  of  the  families  with  over  $1 100  a  year  only  35  per 
cent,  spend  less  than  $10,  while  48  per  cent,  spend  more  than 
$20.  The  same  table  shows  that  of  all  the  nationalities  re- 
presented the  Russians  spend  most  liberally  for  furniture. 
Their  average  is  the  highest  in  each  income-group,  and  the  num- 
ber of  families  reporting  expenditures  of  $20  and  more  is  like- 
wise largest.  The  colored  families  report,  as  a  rule,  the  least  ex- 
penditure for  furniture.  As  for  the  other  nationalities,  the 
variations  between  different  families  and  income-groups  within 
each  nationality  are  quite  as  much  in  evidence  as  the  differences 
between  the  different  nationalities.  1 1  is  obvious  that  expenditures 
for  furniture  must  vary  greatly,  and  that  the  averages  will  be 
affected  by  the  accidental  inclusion  or  exclusion,  in  a  given  group, 
of  families  that  have  had  occasion  to  buy  articles  of  considerable 
value.* 

An  effort  was  made  to  get  an  inventory  of  the  furniture  in 
each  room  of  the  apartment.  On  the  basis  of  the  returns  the 
families  were  classified  into  groups  according  as  the  furniture 
described  seemed  to  make  meager,  fairly  comfortable  or  ample 

*  The  purchase  of  furniture  on  the  instalment  plan  was  reported  in  a  few  in- 
stances, but  too  few  to  warrant  generalization  on  this  point.  One  family  was  paying 
a  dollar  a  week  on  its  furniture;  another  was  paying  $6  a  month  on  a  piano. 

200 


FURNITURE  AND  FURNISHINGS 


provision  for  the  needs  of  the  family.  Where  nothing  beyond 
the  barest  supply  of  indispensable  articles — beds  and  bedding, 
chairs,  table — is  reported,  the  outfit  is  designated  "meager." 
Where  some  additional  articles — rugs  or  oilcloth,  mirrors,*  easy- 
chairs — are  reported,  the  furnishing  is  designated  as  "fair." 
Where  there  is  an  abundant  supply  both  of  necessary  articles 
and  of  accessories,  the  designation  "ample"  is  applied.  Tables 
103  and  104  (pages  204-205)  show  the  number  of  families  in 
each  of  these  classes.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  standard  rises 
with  the  income.  The  percentage  of  "meager"  falls  from  54 
for  the  $600  families  to  13  for  the  $icoo  group,  and  the  per- 
centage of  "fair"  increases  from  46  in  the  §600  group  to  74  in 
the  $1000  group.  Combining  the  $600  and  $700  families  and 
the  $900  and  $1000  groups,  it  is  found  that  52  per  cent,  of  the 
families  in  the  first  double  group  are  reported  as  having  a  meager 
equipment  of  furniture,  and  3  per  cent,  as  having  ample.  In 
the  second  double  group  20  per  cent,  are  reported  meagerly 
equipped,  and  14  per  cent,  as  having  ample  furniture.  The 
equipment  of  only  22  of  the  318  families  (with  incomes  between 
$600  and  $1100)  and  of  32  of  the  whole  391  cases  is  graded  as 
"ample,"  and  of  these  cases  18  of  the  22  and  28  of  the  32  are 
found  in  families  with  more  than  $900  a  year. 

The  possession  of  a  piano  may  be  considered  as  one  sign'  of 
ample  furnishing.  The  families  that  reported  pianos  were  counted, 
and  18  altogether  were  found  in  the  391  families,  8  of  them  belong- 
ing to  families  having  over  $1100  a  year.  The  distribution  by 
incomes  may  be  seen  in  the  appended  note.f 

*  Pier-glasses  are  much  in  demand  by  tenement-dwellers  in  many  districts. 


S600  to  $699 
$700  to  $799 
$800  to  SS99 
3900  to  $999 


tlNCOME. 


Number  of 
Pianos  Reported. 
 o 


Siooo  to  S1099. 
$1100  to  $1199. 
$1200  to  $1299. 
§1300  and  over. 


Income. 


Number  of 
Pianos  Reported. 
  2 


2 


0 


Total 


201 


< 

ber  of 
ilies. 

ojnuuin  j  joj  ajni 
-ipua'dxg  jnotpiAi 

-}-  tJ-  H    tf»'  •   CM    H  • 

• 

vo           •  • 

w                 •  • 

Num' 
Fam 

•ajmitunj  joj 
ajrqipuadxg  ipi\\ 

nO  t*i  cm  (N  h  1/5 

CO            ,  , 

o 

CO 

)  $1099. 

•junouiy  aStuaAy 

VO  CM  O  VO  N  00  f! 
IN  M  O  r-»  On  VO  O 
00    N    H     '     !    rj-  co  CO 

40    H     M                     CM  M 

oq* 

'.                CM  CM 
M  M 

© 
o 
o 

Number  of 
Families. 

•ajniuurnj  joj  3jni 
-ipuadx3  inoqjiw 

69 

•3jnipxirij  joj 
ajniipuadx'j  V[i}\\ 

00   NH    M      .  no    H  nO 

o 

co            •  • 

oC 

S> 

•junouiy  3SBJ3AV 

CO  t^OO  t>»  O  O  Tf 

vo  oi  q  h  vq  cm  -t-  o 
h  od  6  d  t*j  4>  m  oo 

M         M    rj-  H    CM  H 

vO  co 
co 

co  cm 

On 

&e 

M  M 

8 
§ 

On 

Number  of 
Families. 

•3jn:rojn  j  joj  ajnj 
-ipuidx^  jnoipi  \\ 

CO            '  ', 

V) 

•ajniiujrij  joj 
ajnjipuadx^ 

voo  t1-<n  -1-  O  O 

O             •  • 
vo              •  t 

i  $899. 

•  junoui y  sST3J3Ay 

CM  >-c  O  O  CO  no  CM 
On  00  O  On  O  On 
<0  OnO  ^-00  voO  vo 
</>  H 

vq"  co 

$800  tc 

ber  of 
ilics. 

•ajnjrujrijj  joj  ojrq 
-ipus'dxg  inoipi  \\ 

co            \  ', 

Hi 

•ajtvumnj  joj 
3jnjipdodx3  t[}r\\ 

fCONNC^HOO  CM 

o 

>  $799. 

•junotuy  33-BJ3AV 

CM  On  Cn  H  00  nO  H  H 
vo  Cv  cm  00  O  00  fOO 

m              m  h 

O  CM 
Ov  CM 
:           CO  CO 

h 
§ 

aer  of 
ilies. 

•ajtvnujrij  joj  ajnj 
-ipuadxg  inouii,\\ 

H    N      |    N      |    M      !  ! 

vo      :  : 

IS 

Numl 
Fam 

amirajrij  joj 
ajnjTpusdx^  x{\}\\ 

00   V5  N  <t  fO        On  't 

co 

•  • 

'669$  « 

•junouiv  aS^jaAv 

m    O  00    Ov  CM  On 
fOOOOCO    LO  ^-  CM  VO 
M   VO  CO    '    M    CM  vd  VO 

CM  VO 

CM  O 

!        no  vd 

<=> 

>_  u 

•ainjrairtj  joj  ajrq 
-tpuadxj  moqijw 

-::::::: 

«         !  ! 

1  60 

Numl 
Fam 

•ajmuun  .j  joj 
ajnjipuadx'3  tpi.w 

^    "**  m  ^"^2  0  ^ 

o 

2 

to 

G  o 


o  55  -b  .g 
O  O  3  3  ri 
U  «      <  £ 


-  si 

73  o  5 


O  3 


>  s 


202 


FURNITURE  AND  FURNISHINGS 


TABLE   102.— FURNITURE.    NUMBER  OF   FAMILIES  REPORTING 
EXPENDITURE  OF  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY 
NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


Nationality. 


$600  to  $699. 


$700  to  $799. 


$800  to  $899. 


United  States 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian 

Russian  

Austrian,  etc  . 
Italian  

Total  


72 


59 


70 


12 

5 
6 
6 
3 
5 
6 
io 


S3 


73 


53 


Nationality. 


United  States  . . . 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc  

Italian  

Total  


$900  to  $999. 


33 


$1000  to  $1099. 


5  3i 


6  i 
4  2 
i 
i 

i 
i 

2 


14 


67 
39 
24 
28 
14 
57 
32 
57 

3i8 


Total. 


15 


212  54 


14 


203 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  103.— FURNITURE.    STANDARD,  AND  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES 
REPORTING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS  EXPENDED.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

Standard. 

Annual  Expenditure. 

Num- 
ber OF 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Meager. 

Fair. 

Ample. 

Under  $10. 

Over  $20 

w 

a  %i 
P 

6  C 

3  4J 
1-° 

S3 
^0 

5 
6 
16 

13 
16 

33 
25 
21 

a  c 

S  u 

&| 

12 

8 

12 

8 
10 

23 

_  0 

20 

50 
50 
71 

$400  to  $499  

$500  to  $599  

$600  to  $699  

$700  to  $799  

$800  to  $899  

$900  to  $999  

Si  100  to  $1199  

8 

17 
72 

79* 
73 
63 
3i 
18 
8f 
8 
14 

7 

13 

39 
39 
30 
15 
4 
1 

88 
76 
54 
5o 
41 
24 

13 
6 

1 
4 

66 
35 
39 
38 
23 
14 
4 
6 
11 

12 
24 

40 
45 
53 
60 

74 
78 
67 

75 
79 

4 
4 
10 

4 

3 
2 
2 
3 

8 

14 
61 

59 
56 
40 

i5 

7 
4 
3 
3 

IOO 

82 

°o 
76 
77 
63 
48 
39 
5o 
38 
21 

2 

6 

9 
6 
6 
7 
5 
4 
4 
10 

Total  

39i 

14S 

38 

208 

54 

32 

8 

270 

70 

59 

14 

$400  to  $599  

25 

20 

80 

5 

20 

22 

88 

2 

8 

$600  to  $799  

151* 

78 

52 

68 

45 

4 

3 

120 

80 

15 

10 

73 

30 

41 

39 

53 

4 

6 

56 

77 

6 

8 

$900  to  $1099  

94 

19 

20 

61 

65 

14 

15 

55 

58 

J3 

14 

4Sf 

1 

2 

35 

76 

10 

22 

17 

35 

23 

48 

*  Standard  not  reported  in  1  case, 
f  Standard  not  reported  in  2  cases. 


204 


FURNITURE  AND  FURNISHINGS 


TABLE  104. — FURNITURE.   STANDARD,  AND  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES 
REPORTING.— BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

Nationality. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Meager. 

Fair. 

Ample. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Meager. 

Fair. 

Ample. 

Number  of 
Families. 

Meager. 

Fair. 

Ample. 

II 

I 

IO 

J9 

6 

II 

2 

13 

2 

IO 

1 

4 

I 

2 

5 

9 

I 

7 

1 

4 

2 

I 

;; 

?7 

3 

4 

7 

I 

5 

I 

Colored  

ii 

6 

5 

6 

3 

1 

2 

8 

7 

I 

4 

3 

I 

3 

3 

3 

3 

16 

IO 

6 

14 

8 

*6 

12 

7 

5 

6 

2 

9 

5 

4 

9 

6 

3 

16 

A 

4 

13* 

9 

4 

12 

10 

2 

Total  

72 

39 

33 

78 

39 

35 

4 

73 

30 

39 

4 

$900  to  $999. 

$1000  to 
$1099. 

Total. 

Nationality. 

w 

Meager, 

Fair. 

Ample. 

S 

Numbc 
Famil 

Mcag 

'3 
fa 

Amp 

Numlx 
Famil 

Meag 

'3 
fa 

Amp 

Numb( 
Famil 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 

Per 
cent. 

Num- 
ber. 1 

Per 
cent. 

16 

12 

4 

8 

I 

6 

I 

67 

IO 

15 

49 

73 

8 

12 

Teutonic  

3 

8 

8 

5 

3 

39 

7 

18 

28 

72 

4 

IO 

Irish  

5 

1 

1 

24 

25 

17 

7i 

1 

4 

2 

1 

I 

1 

I 

28 

36 

14 

5o 

4 

14 

4 

2 

14 

11 

79 

3 

21 

9 

1 

5 

3 

6 

6 

57 

26 

46 

28 

49 

3 

5 

Austrian,  etc  

7 

6 

1 

1 

I 

» 

32 

22 

69 

9 

28 

1 

3 

Italian  

9 

3 

5 

6 

I 

5 

56* 

35 

62 

20 

36 

1 

2 

Total  

63 

15 

3S 

3i 

4 

23 

4 

3X7* 

127 

40 

168 

53 

22 

7 

*  Standard  not  reported  in  1  case. 


205 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


2.  Taxes,  Dues,  and  Contributions. — Under  this  head  are 
grouped  expenditures  for  the  support  of  labor  organizations, 
churches,  and  other  religious  societies,  social  and  benefit  societies, 
and  also  gifts  of  friendship  and  charity.  Of  such  gifts  the  entries 
are  few  and  far  between.  Taxes  for  the  support  of  the  government 
are  not  reported,  save  in  the  case  of  6  house-owning  families, 
which,  by  reason  of  this  departure  from  type,  were  not  included 
in  the  number  tabulated.  Tables  105  and  106  (pages  208-209) 
show  the  principal  items  as  returned  on  the  schedules  of  the  318 
families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $1 100. 

No  expenditures  at  all  under  this  general  head  are  reported 
from  62  families.  Of  these,  35,  or  more  than  half,  are  in  the  lowest 
2  income-groups,  and  only  14,  or  one-quarter  of  the  whole,  in  the 
$900  and  $1000  groups.  By  nationalities,  the  Italians  furnish  the 
largest  number  of  families  without  expenditure  for  social  organi- 
zations, 25  of  all  the  57  Italian  families,  or  44  per  cent.,  spending 
nothing.  Fifteen  of  the  67  American  families  make  the  same 
return,  and  only  4  of  the  57  Russian,  and  2  of  the  32  Austrian. 

The  average  expenditure  included  in  the  table  is  that  of 
families  reporting  such  expenditure.  It  varies  among  the  nation- 
alities in  a  manner  corresponding  to  the  distribution  of  the  families 
reporting  no  expenditure,  the  Russians  and  Austrians  returning 
a  high  average,  the  Italians  and  colored  a  low  average  amount. 
The  13  Bohemian  families  show  the  highest  average,  and  report 
spending  for  a  greater  variety  of  purposes  than  most  of  the  other 
nationalities,  but  the  number  of  families  is  small.  By  income- 
groups  the  average  amount  increases  with  each  advance  in  the 
scale,  rising  from  $10.96  in  the  $600  group  to  $18.65  m  tne  $1000 
group.  This  latter  sum  would  permit  the  payment  of  10  cents  a 
week  to  the  church,  50  cents  a  month  to_  the  labor  union,  and 
the  same  amount  to  a  lodge. 

Looking  now  at  the  principal  social  organizations  for  whose 
advantages  the  laborer  pays,  we  find  that  83  families,  or  26  per 
cent.,  report  contributions  to  labor  unions;  175,  or  55  per  cent.,  con- 
tribute to  religious  organizations,  and  126,  or  40  per  cent.,  to  lodges 
and  similar  organizations.  Membership  in  the  unions  seems  to  be 
about  as  frequent  in  the  lower  income-groups  as  in  the  higher. 
Combining,  however,  the  $600  and  $700  incomes  and  comparing 
them  with  the  combined  $900  and  $1000  groups,  it  appears  that 

206 


TAXES,  DUES  AND  CONTRIBUTIONS 


25  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  lower  groups  belong  to  unions, 
and  32  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  higher  income-groups. 
Twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  American  families,  23  per  cent,  of 
the  Italians,  35  per  cent,  of  the  Russians  and  18  per  cent,  of  the 
colored  contribute  to  the  unions.  These  differences  may  be  due 
to  accident  in  the  selection  of  families  reporting,  and  too  much 
stress  is  not  to  be  laid  upon  them. 

For  the  support  of  religious  organizations,  the  families  with 
higher  incomes  more  often  report  expenditure  than  those  with 
lower  incomes.  Forty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  families  having  in- 
comes of  $600  to  $800  report  such  expenditure,  as  against  61  per 
cent,  of  the  families  with  incomes  between  $900  and  $1100.* 
A  comparison  of  nationalities  shows  that  seven-eighths  of  the 
Irish  pay  something  for  this  purpose,  while  five-eighths  of  the 
Teutonic  and  American  families,  two-thirds  of  the  Russians  and 
Bohemians,  more  than  half  of  the  Austrians,  less  than  half  of  the 
colored  families,  and  only  one-fourth  of  the  Italians  report  pay- 
ments for  this  object.  To  lodges,  38  per  cent,  of  the  families  with 
incomes  between  §600  and  §800  contribute,  while  45  per  cent,  of 
families  with  incomes  between  $900  and  $1 100  spend  for  this  pur- 
pose. A  smaller  proportion  of  the  Irish  and  colored  families  report 
paying  lodge  dues  than  of  the  other  nationalities.  Twelve  of  the  14 
Bohemian  families  report  such  payments,  31  of  the  57  Russian, 
and  20  of  the  67  American  families.  Under  this  head  are 
included  societies  paying  sick  and  death-benefits.  So  far  as  could 
be  distinguished  from  the  returns,  69  of  the  families  included  in 
the  126  that  supported  lodges  belonged  to  benefit  societies.  A 
sharp  difference  between  nationalities  appears  at  this  point,  the 
American,  Teutonic,  Irish  and  colored  families  in  only  19  cases 
reporting  payment  for  benefit  societies,  while  50  families  in  the 
other  4  nationalities  report  such  expenditure.  It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  (page  192)  that  insurance  of  persons  is  favored  by 
these  groups  of  nationalities  in  exactly  the  converse  proportion. 

*  The  amount  of  payment  for  religious  organizations  differs  greatly  among 
different  families  as  well  as  between  different  nationalities.  Ten  cents  a  Sunday 
is  a  common  contribution  for  attendants  at  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic 
churches.  Many  Jewish  families  report  for  the  year  only  $2  or  $3,  given  for  the 
services  at  the  annual  festivals.  In  many  cases  the  fraternal  societies  are  related  to 
some  religious  organization.  One  schedule  reports  the  woman  as  saying,  "The 
church  has  more  money  than  we;  this  is  why  we  don't  go  to  church." 

207 


TABLE  105.— TAXES,  DUES  AND  CONTRIBUTIONS.    NUMBER  OF 
FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPENDITURE  FOR  GIVEN  PUR- 
POSES.—BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700 

ro  $79< 

). 

rof 

es. 

$300  to  $899. 

Number  of 
Families. 

<u 

Numbe 
Famili 

Number  of 
Families. 

1 

With  Ex- 

With Ex- 

i 
'3 

With  Ex- 

•9 

si 

pend] 

•9 

<J 

pendi- 

pend 

- 

Nationality. 

a 

| 

a 
1 

ture  for: 

I 

g 

ture  for: 

I 

ture  for: 

H 

c: 

I 

d 

1 

M 

W 

3 

s 

a 

c 

W 

— 

1 

di  1 

verage 

O 

H 

no  Ex 

r  Unio 

ligion. 

u 
«j 
u 

verage 

c 

H 

no  Ex 

r  Unio 

ligion. 

1 
B. 

verage 

no  Ex 

r  Unio 
ligion. 

ge,  etc, 

< 

With 

1 

< 

With 

Labo 

*? 

< 

With 

1 

3 

United  States  . . . 

$11.24 

11 

2 

5 

3 

S9.51 

T9 

4 

5 

11 

6 

$8.83 

13 

2 

2!lO| 

4 

5-27 

4 

2 

2 

1 

9-73 

71  2 

3 

2 

13.28 

9 

1 

i  8 

2 

IO.90 

4 

I 

1 

3 

15.02 

7 

I 

2 

5 

1 

18.79 

7 

2  7 

2 

4.22 

11 

3 

2 

4 

9-32 

6 

I 

2 

2 

2 

6.80 

8 

3 

I  41 

1 

20.86 

4 

1 

2 

? 

2 

19.63 

3 

I 

3 

28.97 

3 

H  3 

3 

Russian  

13*33 

16 

3 

3 

7 

10.94 

14 

I 

4 

i 

6 

16.42 

12 

7 

17.29 

6 

1 

1 

31 

4 

11.88 

9 

3 

6 

15-25 

9 

1 

6 

7-75 

16 

7 

3 

6 

I 

5 

9.29 

14 

3 

4 

4.80 

12 

6 

2 

Total  

10.96 

72 

20 

I  | 
173626 

11. 10 

! 

79 15 

20 

1 1 

3730;  13-39 

73 

13 

164527 

Nationality. 


United  States. . 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc  

Italian  

Total  


$900  to  $999. 


Number  cf 
Families. 


,  .  With  Ex- 
1  g  pendi- 
:  .5  ture  for: 


$13-11 
18.91 

x3-79 
5-3° 
33-85 
18.50 

20.75 
10.08 


3  S 

o 
r- 


I  £  ,.3.  ' 


$1000  to  $1099. 


Number  of 
Families. 


16 

5 

3 

1 

1 

4 

2 

2 

4 

2 

9 

3 

7 

2 

9 

4 

1 

3$ 


5h 
1  2 


5  3 


16.78  63  10  ji7|38 


25 


18.84 
19.29 
5.20 
19.80 


18.67 
26.00 
13-30 


18.65 


;    .  With  Ex- 

£  I  pendi- 

2  ture  for 

1  13  l  


6 

6  2 


2  5 

3'  5  5 
i|. . 

1  1 


5  6  4 
-  1  1 


31  4  ii3'i9lS 


Total. 


Number  of 
Families. 


I  3 


With  Ex- 
pendi- 
ture for: 


lid! 


4$ 


11.51 
I5-4I 

14-  93 
6.89 

26.45 

15-  3o 

15-55 
8.64 


67  15  17  41;  20 

39!  6  8  24  15 

24  21  7  21  3 

28  7j  5  11  10 

14  1  5!  10  12 

57  42i  36  3i 


32 


I3-58 


57,25  r3,  *4|  15 


7,  18  20 


3i86283;i75'i26 

I  l 


208 


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t>»  t>»  !"■»  CM  CO 

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CM   OO  CM   (N  m 

VO  CM  CM 

i 

u 

O  N  M    O  M 

Tj-00    CM    M  On 

M 

r-  o  o  t>»  oo 


w  5 


CO  oco  o  <*0 


On 

•      '      *      '  U 

On  On  On  On  ^ 

o  o  o 

On  On 

On  O  ON 

On  O 

On  On  On  On  f. 

vo  r^co 

uo  t^co  o  u 

</>  t/>m 

O 

o  o  o 

o 

O  O  C  O  rt 

o 

o  o 

*J  *J  0 
o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o 

O  O  O  O 

vo  r^oo 

On  m 

^-NC  00    On  i-i 

s&  m  m  </> 

209 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


3.  Recreation  and  Amusement. — The  way  in  which  ex- 
penditure for  purposes  beyond  subsistence-wants  is  restricted 
by  poverty  appears  very  plainly  in  the  table  showing  average 
expenditures  for  recreation  and  amusement  (Table  107,  page  212). 
The  average  for  the  $600  families  is  $3.79;  for  the  $800  families 
$8.44,  for  the  1 1 000  families  $14.76,  and  if  we  look  at  the  families 
with  incomes  between  ?noo  and  $1600  we  find  an  average  of 
$22.29.  A  comparison  of  the  averages  by  nationalities  (Table 
108,  page  213)  shows  that  a  larger  expenditure  for  amusement  and 
recreation  prevails  among  the  nationalities  that  have  adopted  most 
completely  the  American  standard.  The  Italians,  however,  show 
an  average  above  the  general  average  in  every  income-group  save 
one. 

The  families  reporting  no  expenditure  for  recreation  number 
32,  more  than  half  of  them  among  the  families  in  the  lowest  2  in- 
come-groups, only  4  in  the  highest  2.  One-third  of  them  are 
among  the  Russians,  one-half  among  the  Russians  and  Austrians. 
Those  who  report  no  money-expenditure  make  remarks  like 
the  following:  "Never  go  any  place  at  all  except  to  the  woman's 
parents,  who  live  across  the  way."  "The  only  recreation  is  the 
display  of  their  furniture."  "In  the  evening  they  sit  in  front 
of  the  house."  Twelve  of  these  32  families  report  the  use  of 
parks  or  some  other  form  of  recreation  involving  no  expense,  but 
in  20  cases  no  mention  is  made  of  any  form  of  recreation.* 

Three  forms  of  recreation  specified  in  Table  108  (page  213)  are: 
the  use  of  parks,  excursions,  and  theaters.  The  use  of  parks  was 
not  made  a  direct  question  in  the  schedule,  as  were  the  other  forms, 
but  they  are  mentioned  in  the  answers  to  the  general  ques- 
tion as  to  the  forms  of  amusement  and  recreation  enjoyed  by 
the  family.  In  this  connection  they  are  specified  in  102  of  the 
318  schedules,  somewhat  more  often  in  the  families  with  the  lower 
incomes.  Excursions,  involving  at  least  the  cost  of  car-fare,  for 
visits  to  parks  or  to  friends,  are  reported  in  237  of  the  318  cases, 
or  74.5  per  cent.  Thirty-four  per  cent.,  or  109  families,  report 
expenditure  for  the  theater.    A  comparison  of  the  number  of 

*  The  transference  of  an  old-world  tradition  appears  in  the  following  note  in 
an  Italian  schedule:  "The  daughter  has  better  chance  at  marriage  by  staying 
away  from  public  amusements." 

210 


RECREATION  AND  AMUSEMENT 


families  reporting  expenditures  for  theaters  and  excursions  in  the 
upper  and  lower  income-groups  is  instructive.  Twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  $600  and  $700  families  spend  for  theaters,  66  per  cent, 
for  excursions.  Of  the  $900  and  $1000  families,  5 1  per  cent,  spend 
for  theaters  and  87  per  cent,  for  excursions.  By  nationalities, 
theaters  seem  to  be  best  patronized  by  Americans,  the  Teutonic 
families,  and  the  Italians,  and  the  expenditure  for  excursions  is 
likewise  most  frequent  among  these  same  nationalities. 

The  amount  of  expenditure  varies  greatly  in  individual  cases. 
One  family  puts  down  f  1  weekly  for  theater-going,  out  of  an  in- 
come of  about  $900.  Others  report  5  or  10  cents  occasionally  for 
the  "five-cent  theater"  or  moving-picture  exhibition.  Excur- 
sions range  from  visits  to  the  parks  to  a  three  months'  visit  with  a 
sister  in  the  country  for  mother  and  children.  Very  seldom  is 
mention  made  of  a  stated  vacation  for  the  principal  wage-earner. 
Outings  provided  by  the  fresh-air  charities  are  specified  in  a  few 
cases,  and  visits  to  Coney  Island  or  Fort  George  by  the  whole 
family  once  or  twice  a  summer  are  not  infrequently  mentioned. 
Expenditure  for  dances,  although  entered  separately  in  the 
schedule,  is  very  seldom  reported.  One  family  reports  spending 
$14  for  phonograph  records,  and  the  phonograph  appears  in  per- 
haps 4  other  cases.  The  voluntary  societies,  mentioned  in  the 
preceding  section,  often  furnish  means  of  recreation,  such,  as 
social  gatherings,  picnics  and  excursions,  and  expenditure  for 
recreation  is  sometimes  not  differentiated  from  dues  and  pay- 
ments to  the  society. 

4.  Education  and  Reading. — (See  Tables  109-1 1 1,  pages  216- 
218.)  The  public  school  furnishes  free  the  means  of  giving  the 
children  a  formal  education,  and  the  free  libraries  provide  reading 
matter.  But  additional  instruction  (e.  g.,  in  music)  is  often 
desired,  and  the  newspapers  cost  a  cent  apiece.  With  these  items 
are  grouped  expenditures  for  postage  and  stationery,  and  incidental 
expenditures  for  children  at  school.  The  total  amount  reported 
under  this  heading  is  less  than  that  under  any  other  of  the  group- 
heads  of  the  schedule,  and  increases  with  income  on  the  average 
less  than  many  other  items.  The  average  for  the  $600  families 
reporting  expenditure  under  this  head  is  $5.56;  for  the  §1000 
families  the  average  amount  is  $8.54. 

21 1 


q 


<N  N  tJ-  (*5  O 


1 

H    ONO  H 

vO  to 

Os 

N   «   to  -*vO 

ro  to 

VO 

1 

iber. 

u->  PO       O  On 

■*t00 

rOOC 

tc 

Q 
3 

M   N    W    CN  H 

ro 

ft 

Q 

S  «  o 
W  *  < 

H  S  " 
C  K  pj 

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On  f^O  u-)  to 


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On  O  On  On  0> 
NO  t^OO   On  O 

o  o  o  o  o 


O  On  On  On  ^ 
to  f^CO   O  o 

o  o  o  o  S 


212 


TABLE  108.— RECREATION  AND  AMUSEMENT.     NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES REPORTING  VARIOUS  KINDS.— BY  NATIONALITY 
AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699 


$700  to  $799 


**un*-  Form  of 
berof:  Rec. 

i  *am-  rcation. 
llies. 


Nationality. 


United  States. . . 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc  

Italian  


if 

a 


$3.32  II  .  . 

6-35  4-- 
4.62  I  4I. . 
3.00  11  -  - 
2.87!  4  .. 

3-25  M  5 
2.18  J  61  1 
4.98  16  1 


O  or 

3:  Ml 


I  Num- 
ber of 
!  Fam- 
!  ilies. 


Form  of 

Rec- 
reation. 


$800  to  $899 


Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 


H  3  MR 
cj  3  w 

3d   q  -a 


$7-54.19.  4 
7.71    7  2 

7-i7;  7  •- 
2.56  6.. 

6.83  3  .. 
8.12  Ii4|  4 
3.961  91.. 
9.92  14  2 


5ii 

*  3|- 

1  71 

-  4 

2  3 
9  8 
7  7 
1 12 


$9.01 

n-73 
7.48 
2.14 
4.00 
4.61 

7-87 
14.42 


1 

7 

8 
3 

9 
12 


in 
§ 

n 

in 
li 

Par 

s 

3 

jd 

w 

H 

Total  J  3.7972 


721 

I 


44| 


15    :  : :  :  !  2655LJ  8.44 1 


7 


$900  to  $999 


$1000  to  $1099 


Total. 


Nationality. 


?um;  Form  of 
b^of  Rec- 

V.am-  reation. 
ilies. 


lNum-1 
her  of  j 
j  Fam-; 
!  ilies.! 


Form  of 

Rec- 
reation. 


Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 


55  *> 


Ph  3 


J3  -2  § 

a  I  s 


Form  of 
Recreation 


a  p 

.2  '  g 

3  * 


United  States. 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian  

Russian  

Austrian,  etc.. 
Italian  


$15.48 
14.83 
10.78 

2.50 
11.00 

6.09 

7-3i 
10.72 


6 1 5|  7j$i6.4o  j  8|  1 

15.52  bL 


2.00 
5.00 


2  9  5 

-  54 

1  2.. 

3  41  2 

3  7|  41  ".?al  6. 

7|  4|  4)    2.00;  1  . 

..  91  3  21.34;  6. 


1 .  - 

ij. , 


22,55:29! 


$9.54 
12.35 
7-38 
2.72 
6.29 
6.23 

5.37 
10.88 


67|  6 
39,  2 


24 

2« 
14 

57 

32 
57 


20;  55;  27 

IS  32;  16 

1  21  9 

1  15J  2 

io|  141  4 

27  37  I? 

24  iS  10 

4  45  24 


Total. 


11. 71  [63 


i4-76[ 


3i 


72719;  8.41 


318  32 


102I2371C9 


213 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


By  nationalities  the  highest  average  amounts  are  found  among 
the  English-speaking  people,  the  lowest  among  the  Italians. 
Some  expenditure  for  education  and  reading  is  reported  in  all  but 
24  of  the  318  cases.  In  19  cases,  however,  less  than  75  cents 
is  reported.  Both  classes  are  included  in  the  column  "with  no 
expenditure"  in  the  table,  making  43  cases  in  all.  Of  these  43 
cases,  28  are  in  families  with  less  than  §800  a  year,  5  only  in 
families  with  $900  or  over.  Twenty-one  of  them  are  Italian 
families,  and  only  2  occur  among  the  130  families  of  American, 
Teutonic,  and  Irish  descent.  All  of  the  24  Irish  families  report 
something  spent  for  reading.    (Table  1 10,  page  217.) 

Almost  all  of  the  money  spent  under  this  general  head  goes 
for  newspapers.  One  or  two  i-cent  dailies  6  days  in  the  week,  and 
5  cents  weekly  for  a  Sunday  paper,  amounts  to  between  $5  and  §8 
a  year,  according  to  the  number  of  one-cent  papers  purchased.  In 
a  few  cases  (printers  or  barbers),  newspapers  are  obtained  without 
cost.  What  kind  of  newspapers  are  read  may  be  seen  in  Table  1 1 1 
(page  2 1 8),  from  which  it  appears  that  the  "Journal"  and  "World" 
are  far  in  the  lead  with  readers  of  English;  that  there  are  some  in 
all  of  the  foreign-speaking  nationalities  that  read  the  papers  printed 
in  English;  and  that  among  the  Russians,  Austrians  and  Italians 
a  majority  of  the  people  buy  papers  printed  in  their  native 
tongues.  Of  the  1 58  families  of  the  first  4  nationalities  on  our 
list,  78  mention  the  "Journal"  or  "American,"  59  the  "World," 
and  16  all  other  newspapers.  In  25  cases,  however,  the  name 
of  the  paper  bought  is  not  stated.  There  are  160  families  in  the 
group  comprising  Bohemians,  Russians,  Austrians  and  Italians. 
Twenty-six  of  these  name  the  "Journal,"  16  the  "World,"  and  none 
any  other  paper  in  English.  Ninety-one,  or  57  per  cent.,  buy 
papers  in  the  foreign  languages,  and  30  cases  are  reported  in 
which  newspapers  are  bought,  but  no  names  of  papers  are  given.* 

*  The  following  list  shows  the  papers  mentioned,  outside  of  the  "Journal"  and 
"World,"  with  the  number  of  families  reporting  each  paper: 


Press   5 

Sun   2 

Times   2 

Herald   3 

Eagle   2 

St.  Andrew's  Cross   1 

The  Worker   1 


Carried  forward  16 

214 


EDUCATION  AND  READING 


Newspapers  are  less  frequently  omitted  by  families  with  $900 
and  1 1 000  than  by  those  with  lower  incomes.  Ninety-three  per 
cent,  of  all  families  in  the  2  highest  income-groups  have  news- 
papers, as  against  79  per  cent,  in  the  2  lowest  income-groups.  By 
nationalities,  practically  every  family  in  the  first  3  nationality- 
groups  has  newspapers,  while  21  of  the  57  Italian  families  go 
without,  and  13  of  the  89  Russian  and  Austrian  families. 

As  an  indication  of  interest  in  reading,  questions  were  put 
as  to  whether  there  were  books  in  the  house,  and  whether  use  was 
made  of  the  public  library.  The  answers  to  these  questions  are 
tabulated  in  Tables  109  and  no  (pages  216,  217),  and  show  that 
books  were  reported  in  97  of  the  318  families,  or  30.5  per  cent., 
and  that  use  of  the  library  was  reported  in  68  cases,  or  21.4  per 
cent.  The  figures,  as  far  as  they  go,  indicate  a  somewhat  greater 
use  of  books  by  the  families  with  larger  incomes.  The  books 
most  frequently  named  were  novels  and  religious  books.* 

Brought  forward  16 


Eternal  Progress   .  i 

Munsey's  Argosy   2 

Ladies'  Home  Journal   1 

Standard  Union   2 

Herald   9 

Journal  (German)   3 

Vblkszeitung   1 

Staatszeitung   2 

Tageblatt   7 

Morgen   1 

Wahrheit   n 

Amerikaner   3 

Vorwarts   21 

New  Yorker  Liste   5 

Amerika  Echo   2 

Freedom  (Hungarian)   1 

Slovak  American   1 

Italo  Amerikano   3 

Progresso   5 

Heraldo   8 

Bollettino  dela  Sera   8 

Telegrapho   6 

Total   119 


Only  3  families,  all  Americans,  mention  monthly  magazines. 

*  Outside  of  the  items  tabulated,  some  interesting  details  appeared  in  the  sched- 
ules. One  Jewish  family,  recently  arrived,  was  paying  a  Rabbi  $3  a  month  for 
teaching  two  children.  Twenty-five  cents  was  entered,  in  one  schedule,  as  paid  for 
writing  a  letter.  The  entries  for  postage  and  stationery  are  seldom  more  than  a 
few  cents.    One  schedule  reports,  "In  3  years  1  letter,  3  cents." 

215 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  109.— EDUCATION  AND  READING.  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EX- 
PENDITURE AND  PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  USE 
*OF  NEWSPAPERS,  BOOKS,  PUBLIC  LIBRARY.— BY  INCOME. 


03 

a 

Families 
Spending 
Less  Than 
75  O.NTS. 

Families  Reporting: 

# 

Q 
W 
Q 
Z 

w 

Income. 

d 

< 

En 

0 
M 

Newspapers. 

Books  at 
Home. 

Use  of 
Library. 

5 
X 

W 
z 

D 

O 

a 

NUMBE 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

J  Number. 
Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Average  / 

$600  to  $699  

72 

17 

24 

74 

20  ;  28 

15 

21 

$5-56 

$700  to  $799  

79 

t> 

14 

66 

84 

21  ,  27 

11 

14 

4-93 

$800  to  $899  

73 

IO 

14 

60 

82 

27  j  37 

14 

19 

7.66 

$900  to  $999  

63 

4 

6 

57 

90 

16  25 

18 

29 

6.70 

$1000  to  $1099  

3i 

1 

3 

3° 

97 

13  1  42 

1 

10 

32 

8-54 

$400  to  S599  

25 

5 

20 

,8 

72 

IO  j  40 

4 

16 

3-64 

$600  to  $799  

151 

28 

11 

119 

79 

j 

41   j  27 

26 

17 

4.69 

$800  to  $899  

73 

10 

14 

60 

82 

27  '  37 

14 

19 

7.66 

$900  to  $1099  

94 

S 

5 

87 

93 

29  31 

28 

30 

7.0S 

$1100  and  over  

48 

45 

94 

27  56 

14 

29 

io-33t 

*  Average  of  families  spending. 

f  Average  of  41  families  with  incomes  between  $1100  and  $1599. 


2l6 


TABLE  110.— EDUCATION  AND  READING.  AVERAGE  ANNUAL  EX- 
PENDITURE, AND  NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  USE 
OF  NEWSPAPERS,  BOOKS,  PUBLIC  LIBRARY.— BY  NATION- 
ALITY AND  INCOME. 


$600  to 

$699 

$700  to  $799 

$800 

TO 

$899 

Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

1 

J 

* 

1 

*. 

Nationality. 

J 

g 

> 

6 
5 

6 

J 

P 

3 

i 

K3 
c 

a 

u 

a 

■A 

brar 

rage 

~r 

1 

Q, 

so 

a 

I 

I 

E 

33 
a 

en 

i 

j 

- 

a 

H 

H 

1-1 

Dd 

a 

4> 

1 

- 

of  Li 

< 

Tota 

3  Exp 

wspa 

1 
O 

pq 

| 

Tota 

x 
K 

:wspa 

Book 

of  Li 

ith  n< 

tn 
P 

a 

s 
a 

w 

H 

§ 

United  States  

$6.13 

11 

X 

2 

$5-8o 

19 

18 

4 

5 

$8.81 

13 

5 

5 

7-33 

4 

4 

I 

I 

5-29 

7 

1 

7 

1 

1 

8.co 

9 

3 

3 

Irish  

8.16 

4 

4 

6.01 

7 

6 

n-95 

7 

? 

3 

3 

Colored  

5-43 

11 

3 

6 

"t 

3 

7-36 

6 

6 

4 

5-49 

8 

1 

6 

2 

Bohemian  

6-39 

4 

2 

2 

1 

6-57 

3 

3 

1 

5.62 

3 

2 

1 

Russian  

5-43 

16 

5 

•3 

4.12 

14 

2 

10 

5 

3 

6-55 

12 

1 

1 

4 

Austrian,  etc.  . . . 

5-85 

6 

3 

4 

1 

2  3.16 

9 

8 

1 

10.03 

9 

1 

5 

2 

Italian  

3-27 

16 

6 

9 

5 

3 

3.08 

14 

6 

8 

_7 

2-74 

12 

7 

5 

5 

Total  

5.56 

72 

17 

53 

2015 

4-93 

79 

11 

6c 

21 

11 

7.66 

73 

10 

60 

27 

14 

$900  to  $999  $1000  to  $1099  Total. 


Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

a 

Num- 
ber of 
Fam- 
ilies. 

Number 

Re- 
porting. 

1 

# 

1 

* 

c 

* 

Nationality. 

3 

>. 

i 
3 

>. 

1 
< 

3 

| 

u 

-z 

■Ji 
Z 

B 

| 

3 

od 

c 

1 

in 

bp 
B 

a 

aj 

5 

a; 

Jq 

3 

1 

& 

< 

O 

f_ 
w 

c 

z 

d 

a 

i 

se  of  I . 

< 

Total 

no  Exp 

Newspz 

- 

se  '  if  1 . 

> 
< 

no  Exp 

Newsp.i 

1 

"8 

P 

-5 

P 

P 

i 

1 

United  States. . . 

$7.82 

l6 

l6 

4 

4 

$1 1-53 

8 

I 

2 

3 

$7 .85 

67 

I 

65 

16 

10 

Teutonic  

7-34 

II 

II 

2 

1 

10. 9S 

8 

8 

4 

4 

8.10 

39 

I 

39 

11 

10 

Irish  

5-55 

5 

4 

1 

6.22 

1 

i 

1 

8.01 

24 

22 

4 

4 

Colored  

3-74 

2 

1 

3.60 

1 

1 

5-94 

2S 

4 

20 

11 

3 

Bohemian  

5.98 

4 

1 

3 

3 

2 

6.14 

14 

3 

10 

6 

5 

Russian  

5-9i 

9 

9 

3 

5 

i  

6 

6 

1 

1 

6.14 

57 

6 

48 

18 

12 

Austrian,  etc. . . . 

7.82 

7 

1 

6 

1 

4 

6.90 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7.61 

32 

7 

27 

8 

10 

Italian  

5-48 

9 

2 

J7 

2 

4.62 

6 

6 

4 

4-37 

57 

21 

35 

23 

5 

6.70 

63  4 

57 

1618 

8.54 

3i 

I 

30 13  10 

6.98 

3i8 

43 

266  97 

68 

*  Including  cases  with  expenditure  less  than  75  cents. 
217 


en  a  < 

«  a  » 

£  «  o 

^  t-J 


<  < 

55  Q  O 

5  w 

o  a 


O  W  5? 

«  H  I  w  £ 
w  e  «  &  « 


00 
to 


c/1  ,3 

p  eg 


2lS 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES 


5.  Miscellaneous  Expenditures. — Under  this  head  are  in- 
cluded items  not  easily  classified  under  any  of  the  preceding 
heads.  Here  fall  expenditures  for  tobacco,  for  alcoholic  drinks 
away  from  home,  for  barber's  services;  the  spending  money  not 
otherwise  accounted  for,  funeral  expenses,  the  cost  of  moving, 
and  a  variety  of  other  charges. 

The  expenditures  for  these  miscellaneous  items  are  an  ex- 
pression of  the  individuality  of  the  members  of  the  family.  The 
range  for  such  expression  is  very  restricted  on  the  narrow  in- 
comes, but  increases  with  increase  of  resources.  The  expendi- 
tures chosen  out  of  those  included  in  this  group  are  also  an  index 
of  the  character  and  experiences  of  the  members  of  the  family. 
An  excessive  drink-bill  tells  its  own  story;  an  entry  of  $50 
for  repayment  of  debts  suggests  a  happier  state  of  affairs. 

A  comparison  of  the  averages  of  the  amounts  included  under 
miscellaneous  expenditures  for  the  different  income-groups  shows 
a  marked  increase  with  increase  of  income  (Table  1 12,  page  224). 
The  averages  for  the  5  income-groups  between  $600  and  $1100 
are  §25.47,  $32.38,  $41.3 1,  $45.51,  $63.3 1.  The  average  for  the  150 
families  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $800  is  $27.09;  for 
the  94  families  with  incomes  between  $900  and  $1100  is  $51.38, 
or  nearly  twice  as  much  as  for  the  poorer  families.  Tables  1 13  and 
1 14  (pages  224-225)  show  the  number  of  families  spending  sums 
within  given  limits,  in  each  income-group.  The  preponderance 
of  entries  of  the  lower  sums  for  the  smaller  incomes  is  as  striking 
as  the  frequency  of  the  larger  sums  on  the  higher  incomes.  Table 
114  (page  225)  shows  that  only  1*  of  the  25  families  with  less 
than  $600  a  year  spends  over  $30  for  miscellanies,  that  61  per 
cent,  of  the  families  with  from  $600  to  $800  a  year  do  not  exceed 
this  limit,  and  that  only  36  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  from  $900 
to  $1100  a  year  fall  below  it.  Of  the  48  families  with  $1100  a 
year  and  more,  only  8,  or  16.7  per  cent.,  spend  less  than  $30  for 
miscellaneous  items,  and  58  per  cent,  report  more  than  $50. 

The  different  nationalities  show  little  difference  in  the  total 
amount  charged  to  the  account  of  miscellaneous  expenditures. 
A  few  large  entries  for  certain  families  bring  up  the  averages 

*  This  family,  under-fed  and  in  poor  health,  reports  $66.40  for  spending  money, 
probably  for  intoxicants. 


219 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

in  a  few  cases,  but  Table  1 1 5  (page  226)  shows  a  general  correspond- 
ence in  the  number  of  families  spending  given  amounts.  Even 
more  striking  is  Table  1 16,  showing  these  data  for  the  two  groups 
of  nationalities ;  the  first  group  comprising  Americans,  the  Teutonic 
nations,  Irish  and  colored;  the  second,  Bohemians,  Russians, 
Austrians  and  Italians.  It  appears  that  almost  exactly  the  same 
number  is  to  be  found  spending  less  than  $30,  from  $30  to 
$50,  and  over  $50. 

It  will  not  be  without  importance  to  consider  some  of  these 
items  separately.  The  details  included  under  the  title  "miscel- 
laneous" are  sometimes  concealed  under  the  general  head  of 
"spending  money."  The  schedule  asked  for  a  return  of  spending- 
money  for  the  different  members  of  the  family,  and  in  some 
cases  this  was  entered  at  large  as  50  cents  or  $1  a  week, 
without  further  explanation.  In  other  words  there  was  obvious 
duplication  with  other  entries,  as  for  tobacco  and  car-fare.  In 
the  sheets  showing  details  for  each  family,  these  duplications 
have  been  eliminated  and  nothing  is  charged  to  spending-money 
which  is  elsewhere  charged  to  tobacco,  car-fare  or  other  stated 
objects  of  expenditure.  In  many  families  the  mother  is  the 
cashier  and  receives  her  husband's  wage  week  by  week,  allowing 
him  out  of  it  a  fixed  sum,  say  $1  or  $2,  for  his  pocket-money. 
Out  of  this  he  pays  for  car-fare,  lunches,  tobacco,  and  what 
not.  To  the  children  small  sums  are  given  from  time  to  time, 
but  seldom  as  a  regular  amount  every  week.  Under  the 
general  head  of  spending  money  are  sometimes  included  expendi- 
tures for  questionable  purposes,  such  as  an  excessive  amount 
for  drink,  or  for  gambling.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  draw 
the  line  in  such  cases. 

Expenditures  reported  for  tobacco  are  shown  in  Tables  117 
and  118  (pages  227-228).  The  average  amounts  expended  in- 
crease from  $9.40  for  the  $600  incomes,  to  $16.16  for  incomes 
between  $1000  and  $1100.  This  would  mean  a  little  under  20 
cents  a  week  in  the  first  case,  and  something  over  30  cents  a  week 
in  the  second  case.  The  Russians  and  Austrians  report  a  relatively 
high  expenditure  for  this  purpose,  although  a  larger  proportion 
of  cases  with  no  expenditure  for  tobacco  is  reported  from  these 
nationalities  than  from  any  others.    The  use  of  tobacco  is  re- 

220 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES 


ported  in  all  but  63  of  the  318  families  with  incomes  between 
$600  and  $1100.  In  8  cases  it  is  reported  as  received  without 
cost,  either  as  a  gift,  or  in  connection  with  employment  in  the 
tobacco  trades.  Its  use  is  so  general  that  it  must  be  included  as 
forming  part  of  the  established  standard  of  living. 

The  returns  in  regard  to  alcoholic  drinks  away  from  home  are 
so  incomplete  as  to  warrant  small  inference  from  them.  In  certain 
cases  the  details  are  given  with  completeness,  as  stated  in  another 
connection  (page  133).  But  more  often  the  expenditure  for  drink 
has  been  hidden  under  "spending  money,"  or  "meals  away  from 
home,"  or  in  one  or  two  obvious  instances  omitted  entirely, 
leaving  an  apparent  surplus  quite  irreconcilable  with  the  meager 
provision  reported  for  the  necessities  of  life.  The  amount  actually 
reported  for  drinks  away  from  home  may  safely  be  considered 
as  not  exaggerated.  It  has  been  included  in  the  table  concerning 
alcoholic  drinks  at  home  (page  149).  A  few  exceptionally  large 
entries  for  drinks  away  from  home  are  $200  in  the  $800  group  of 
Americans,  $233.60  for  one  $1000  American  family.  No  sums 
so  large  as  these  are  reported  by  the  families  of  other  nation- 
alities. For  the  Italians  the  returns  give  something  under  this 
head  for  three-fourths  of  the  families.  The  amounts  are  usually 
not  large.  In  a  few  cases  occurs  an  entry  of  from  $30  to  $40,  or 
about  10  cents  a  day.  Illustrations  for  the  temperance  lecturer 
may  be  found  in  the  report  of  one  woman  that  she  bought 
heavy  cups  so  the  drunken  husband  might  not  break  them,  and 
in  the  entry  under  "playthings  for  children"  that  the  only 
expenditure  was  on  one  occasion  when  the  father  was  drunk 
and  bought  a  5-cent  toy  for  each  child. 

For  the  services  of  the  barber  something  is  reported  from  the 
great  majority  of  families.  The  children's  hair  is  often  cut  at 
home.  One  case  of  co-operative  hair-cutting  is  reported — "The 
neighbors  cut  the  father's  hair."  But  for  the  most  part  the 
barber  is  patronized  for  this  service,  and  in  the  majority  of  cases 
for  shaving  also.  A  count  of  the  cases  shows  that  in  176  of  the  318 
cases,  or  55  per  cent.,  there  is  resort  to  the  barber  for  shaving  at 
least  once  a  week.  The  cost  is  usually  10  cents,  in  some  cases 
5;  or  for  hair-cut  and  shave  together,  25  cents.    The  distribution 


221 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


of  the  176  families  by  income  and  nationality  may  be  seen  in  the 
footnote.* 

The  amount  of  expenditure  for  funerals  is  reported  in  only 
12  cases.  The  amounts  range  from  $30  to  $50  for  the  funeral  of 
a  child,  to  $130  for  the  funeral  of  an  adult.  In  8  of  the  12  cases 
expenditures  are  reported  of  from  $30  to  $50;  in  the  other  4  cases 
the  amounts  are  $65,  $78,  $120,  $130.  The  details  of  these 
expenditures  are  not  given.  In  one  case  it  is  stated  that  $40  out 
of  the  $65  spent  was  given  by  relatives. 

For  moving,  expenditures  vary.  Three  dollars,  $5  and  $7  are 
common  entries  under  this  head,  but  the  entries  are  too  few  to 
warrant  tabulation. 

Expenditures  for  candy,  ice  cream  and  soda  water  are  reported 
in  a  number  of  schedules.  A  dollar  a  week  in  the  summer  is  per- 
haps the  maximum  entry.  Another  family  reports  $18.20  for 
the  year  for  this  purpose.  The  pennies  of  the  children  that  go  for 
these  luxuries  are  more  often  entered  under  the  head  of  spending 
money  for  children. 

It  remains  only  to  notice  a  few  single  cases  where  a  large  entry 
among  the  miscellaneous  items  sheds  some  light  on  the  gen- 


*  FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPENDITURE  FOR  SHAVING  AT  THE 

BARBER'S. 


By  Nationality. 

By 

Income. 

With  Expendi- 

With Expendi- 

ture for 

u 

ture  for 

11 

Shaving. 

11 

Shaving. 

fs 

u 

3 

X 

a 

u 

$ 

S 
3 

0 

& 

g 

u 

e- 

a. 

United  States  

67 

38 

57 

$600  to 

$699  

72 

31 

43 

39 

19 

49 

$700  to 

$799---- 

79 

41 

52 

24 

12 

5o 

$800  to 

$899.... 

73 

39 

53 

28 

7 

25 

$900  to 

$999  

63 

44 

70 

14 

10 

7i 

$1000  to 

P1099  

3i 

21 

68 

57 

43 

75 

176 

55 

32 

25 

78 

3i8 

57 

22 

39 

318 

176 

55 

222 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES 


eral  conditions  of  work  and  life.  One  milk-driver  receives  an 
allowance,  in  addition  to  regular  wages,  of  $2  a  week  from  his 
employer,  which  he  is  expected  to  spend  among  the  small  dealers 
to  whom  he  delivers  milk.  Another  milk-driver  is  required  to 
deposit  $200  with  his  employer  as  surety  for  his  honesty.  One 
man,  earning  $1300  a  year,  paid  $48  for  a  watch  and  chain  for  his 
wife;  one  gas-fitter,  with  an  income  of  $1600,  was  obliged  to  make 
good  the  loss  of  $250  worth  of  materials  stolen  from  a  building 
where  he  had  been  employed.  In  most  of  the  cases,  however, 
where  the  amount  spent  for  miscellanies  reaches  $75  or  more,  it 
is  accounted  for  under  the  vague  term  "spending  money or 
under  the  items  of  tobacco  and  drink. 


223 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  112.— MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES.  AVERAGE  ANNUAL 
EXPENDITURE  OF  ALL  FAMILIES.— BY  INCOME 
AND  NATIONALITY. 


'  $600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $399 

$900  to  $999  $1000  to  $1099 

6 

t 

6 

k 

Nationality. 

i  u  8 

MS 

V  3 

U 

p  3 

Numbe 
Famili 

Avcra 
Expendi 

Numbe: 
Famili 

Avcra: 
Expendi 

Numbe 
Famili 

Avcra 
Expcndii 

Numbe 
Famili 

Avera 
Expendi 

Numbe 
Famili 

Avera 
Expendi 

United  States  . 

II 

$35-65 

$26.02 

$45-12 

16 

$45-77 

8 

$72.55 

4 

14.66 

7 

23-59 

9 

60.93 

II 

52.59 

8 

54-29 

Irish  

1  4 

18.23 

7 

23.06 

7 

24-73 

5 

57-42 

1 

30.80 

II 

21.87 

6 

24.17 

8 

41.02 

2 

40.43 

1 

159.80 

Bohemian  

4 

13-85 

3 

23.60 

3 

20.91 

4 

24.74 

16 

20.77 

14 

37-98 

12 

32.21 

9 

57-7° 

j  6 

76-59 

Austrian,  etc.. 

1  6 

22.92 

9 

33-19 

9 

52.96 

43-44 

24.00 

x6 

- 

34-04 

14 

49-34 

12 

37-77 

I 

29-53 

\l 

45.60 

25-47 

79 

32.38 

73 

41-31 

63 

45-51 

\» 

63-3I 

TABLE    113.— MISCELLANEOUS    EXPENDITURES.  NUMBER 
PER  CENT.  OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING  EXPENDITURE 
OF  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME. 


AND 


Income. 


J  Number 

OF 

Families. 


$600  to  $699 
$700  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $999 
$1000  to  $1099 


Total,  $600  to  $1099 


$400  to  $590. 
$600  to  $799. 
$800  to  $899. 
$900  to  $1099. 
Siico  and  over. 


3i8 


25 
151 
73 
94 
48 


Families  with  Expenditure  of: 


Under  $30 


$30  to  $50 


Over  $50 


Num- 
ber. 


Per  Cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


24 
92 

37 
34 


72 

5o  1 

69-5 

79 

42  ; 

53-2 

73 

37  1 

49-5 

63 

24  j 

38.1 

31 

10  1 

32.2 

i  T5 

I  22 

21 

6 


5i-i 


96.0 
60.9 

4Q-5 
36.2 
16.7 


83 


37 
19 
27 
12 


Per  Cent. 


Num- 
ber. 


Per  Cent. 


20.8 
27.8 
26.0 
33-3 
19-3 


26.2 


24-5 
26.0 
28.7 
2^.0 


72 


1 

22 
17 
33 
28 


9-7 
19.0 

24-5 

28.6 
48.5 


4.0 
14.6 
24.5 
35-i 
58.3 


224 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES 


TABLE  114.— MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES.    NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES REPORTING  EXPENDITURE  OF  GIVEN 
AMOUNTS.— BY  INCOME. 


Total 
Num- 

Expenditure. 

Income. 

ber 

OF 

Fami- 
lies. 

Under 
$10 

$10 

to 

$20 

$20 

to 
$30 

$30 

to 

$40 

$40 

to 

$50 

$50 

to 

$60 

$60 
to 
$70 

$70 
to 
$80 

$80 

to 

$90 

$90 
to 
$100 

Over 
$100 

$400  to  $499 
$500  to  $599 

8 
17 

4 

5 

2 
9 

j 

3 

j 

Total, 
$400  to  $599 

25 

9 

11 

4 

I 



$600  to  $699 
$700  to  $799 
$800  to  $899 
$900  to  $999 
$1000  to  $1099 

72 
79 
73 
63 
3i 

11 

8 
6 
1 

18 
20 

iS 
10 

4 

21 

14 
16 

13 
6 

8 

13 

8 

13 
5 

7 
9 
11 
8 
1 

2 
6 
8 

4 
1 

3 
5 
2 

3 

I 
I 
I 

2 

5 

I 

1 

2 
2 

I 

2 
2 

2 
5 
5 
5 

Total, 
$600  to  $1099 

3i8 

26 

67 

70 

47 

36 

21 

13 

10 

6 

5 

17 

$1100  to$ii99 
$1200  to  $1299 
$1300  to  $1399 
$1400  to  $1499 
$1500  to$i599 
$1600  and  over 

18 
8 
8 
1 
6 
7 

2 

4 
1 

1 
1 

2 

2 

1 
1 
1 

2 

2 
2 

•- 

1 

.. 

1 
1 

3 
3 
4 

1 

3 

Total, 
$1100  and  over 

48 

3 

2 

3 

7 

5 

5 

2 

4 

1 

2 

14 

15 


225 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  115.— MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES.    NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES REPORTING  EXPENDITURE  OF  GIVEN 
AMOUNTS.— BY  NATIONALITY. 


h 
O 

Expenditure. 

Nationality. 

UMBEI 
ILIES. 

m 

0 
0 

V) 

09 

8 

(A 

55 

0 

0 

0 

O 

0 

0 

0 

O 

0 

H 

a 

0 

0 

0 

O 

0 

0 

0 

O 

0 

M 

g 

O 

H 

& 

ee 

kf) 

if) 

in 

<f> 

0 

O 

67 

6 

16 

9 

I  I 

7 

8 

4 

I 

2 

3 

39 

2 

9 

7 

8 

3 

3 

1 

1 

5 

24 

3 

5 

9 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

28 

4 

5 

7 

5 

3 

1 

1 

I 

1 

14 

3 

5 

1 

4 

1 

57 

2 

15 

15 

3 

5 

4 

3 

6 

2 

2 

32 

3 

4 

11 

3 

4 

1 

2 

I 

1 

2 

Italian  

57 

3 

8 

1 1 

11 

11 

5 

2 

2 

I 

3 

Total  

318 

26 

67 

70 

47 

36 

21 

13 

10 

6 

5 

17 

TABLE  116.— MISCELLANEOUS  EXPENDITURES.    NUMBER  OF  FAM- 
ILIES SPENDING  GIVEN  AMOUNTS.— BY  NATIONALITY- 
GROUPS  AND  INCOME. 


INCOME. 

Total  Number 
of  Families. 

Under  $30. 

$30  to  $50. 

Over  $50. 

Group 
I* 

Group 

n.t 

Group 
I. 

Group 
II. 

Group 
I. 

Group 
II. 

Group 
I. 

Group 
II. 

$600  to  $699  

$700  to  $799  

$800  to  $899  

$900  to  $999  

30 
39 
37 
34 
18 

42 
40 
36 
29 

I3 

22 
24 
20 
11 
5 

28 
18 
17 
!3 

5 

4 
11 

9 
12 

5 

II 
11 
IO 

9 
1 

4 
4 

8 
11 
8 

3 
11 

9 
7 
7 

Total  

158 

160 

82 

81 

41 

42 

35 

37 

*  Group   I  includes  Americans,  Teutonic  nations,  Irish,  and  colored, 
t  Group  II  includes  Bohemians,  Russians,  Austrians,  etc.,  and  Italians. 


226 


227 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  118.— TOBACCO.    AVERAGE  EXPENDITURE  OF  ALL  FAMI- 
LIES.—BY  NATIONALITY  AND  INCOME. 


$600  to  $699. 

$700  to  $799. 

$800  to  $899. 

Number 

Number 

Number 

of 

d 

of 

c 

of 

2 

Nationality. 

Families. 

1 
S 

Families. 

imou 

Families. 

§ 

s 

< 

<; 

< 

w  £ 

B 
CO 

bp 

Tota 

ith  no 
cnditu 

A  vera 

Total 

ith  no 
cnditu 

Aver? 

Total 

ith  no 
:-nditu 

Avera 

>a 

United  States  

II 

2 

$  8.21 

5 

$11.31 

*3 

3 

$10.74 

4 

5-25 

3 

10.78 

9 

1 

11.05 

Irish  

4 

2 

5.06 

! 

2 

6.64 

7 

1 

8.27 

II 

3 

8.12 

6 

2 

9.10 

8 

1 

12.21 

4 

2 

5-65 

3 

6.07 

3 

• 

7.80 

16 

7 

8.66 

14 

5 

16.09 

12 

I2.65 

2 

13.00 

9 

I3-36 

9 

3 

17.06 

16 

2 

11.25 

14 

8.29 

12 

3 

IO-33 

Total  

72 

20 

9.40 

79 

17 

10.S1 

73 

11.52 

$900  to  $999. 

$1000  to  $1099. 

Total. 

Number 

Number 

Number 

of 

c 

of 

i 

of 

Nationality. 

Families. 

3 

O 

s 

Families. 

c 
E 

Families. 

I 

< 

< 

< 

0 

no  Ex- 
liturc. 

1 

no  Ex 
liture. 

'cragc 

no  Ex- 
liture. 

H 

With 
pent 

*< 

With 
pern 

< 

1 

With 
pent 

a 

1 

$10.09 

8 

I 

$24-03 

67 

>, 

$10.16 

11 

3 

15-29 

8 

2 

I0.53 

39 

9 

11.29 

5 

1 

12.42 

1 

13.00 

24 

\ 

8.65 

2 

5.20 

1 

7.80 

28 

9-32 

4 

3 

10.40 

14 

6 

6.94 

9 

1 

13.10 

*6 

2 

14.07 

57 

17 

13-25 

7 

1 

13-84 

5.20 

32 

6 

13-95 

9 

3 

8.28 

a 

I 

18.08 

57 

9 

10.55 

Total  

~67 

13 

11.63 

31 

6 

16.16 

3,8 

7i 

10.98 

228 


RELATION  OF  INCOME  TO  EXPENDITURE 


IV.  Relation  of  Income  to  Expenditure 

Having  considered  the  elements  of  the  subsistence  that  our 
families  provide,  it  remains  to  consider  the  question  how  far  they 
are  able  to  provide  this  subsistence  out  of  the  incomes  that  they 
have.  If  a  family  is  able  to  make  both  ends  meet  out  of  its  in- 
come, it  seems  a  fair  inference  that  it  is  able  to  maintain  such 
standard  of  living  as  is  represented  by  its  expenditures.  Still 
more  probable  is  this  if  the  family  has  a  surplus  of  income  over 
expenditures.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the  standard  maintained  is 
normal  or  adequate,  however.  It  may  be  so  low  that  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years,  if  not  sooner,  the  physique  and  morale  of  the  family 
must  deteriorate,  or  the  effects  may  be  apparent  only  in  the  gradual 
deterioration  of  a  whole  group  of  the  population  in  the  course 
of  one  or  two  generations.  This  deterioration  may  be  going  on  at 
the  same  time  that  individual  families  are  living  as  best  they  can 
within  their  incomes.  The  comparison  of  income  with  expenditure 
has  therefore  been  deferred  until  after  the  examination  of  the 
main  items  of  expenditure  in  the  several  income-groups. 

In  comparing  the  income  and  expenditure  of  the  families  in- 
cluded in  our  tables,  three  classes  have  been  made:  families  with 
an  even  balance,  those  showing  a  surplus,  and  those  reporting  a 
deficiency.  In  view  of  the  probabilities  of  error  in  the  estimates 
which  the  figures  represent,  a  margin  of  $25  has  been  allowed,  and 
all  cases  where  the  difference  either  way  between  income  and  ex- 
penditure does  not  exceed  this  sum,  are  counted  as  having  neither 
surplus  nor  deficiency.  Tables  1 19  and  120  (pages  235-236)  show 
the  results  of  this  enumeration.  Of  the  318  families  that  have 
incomes  between  $600  and  $1100,  116  show  an  even  balance 
within  $25,  116  show  a  surplus,  and  86  show  a  deficiency.  Of  the 
25  families  with  incomes  under  §600,  13  came  out  even  within  $25* 
5  show  a  surplus  of  more  than  $25,  and  7  show  a  deficiency. 
Among  the  48  families  with  incomes  of  $1 100  and  above,  15  come 
out  within  the  §25  limit,  22  report  a  surplus,  and  1 1  a  deficiency. 
This  comparison  shows  that  there  are  extravagant  families  and 
economical  families  on  whatever  income.  It  suggests  also,  what 
figures  already  presented  substantiate,  that  the  families  that 

229 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

make  both  ends  meet  on  less  than  §600  are  living  far  below  the 
normal  standard. 

Examining  by  income-groups  the  returns  for  the  318  families 
with  incomes  between  §600  and  §1 100,  we  find  that  the  percentage 
of  those  reporting  deficiency  tends  to  diminish  with  increase  of  in- 
come, but  with  a  movement  in  the  opposite  direction  for  the 
$800  groups.  The  table  of  averages  shows  no  such  interruption,* 
so  that  the  amount  of  the  deficiency  must  be  smaller  in  the 
families  with  incomes  of  $800  and  $900,  even  if  the  number  of 
families  reporting  deficiency  increases.  The  table  indicates  that 
a  comfortable  margin  of  income  over  expenditure  is  first  possible 
with  an  income  between  $800  and  $900. 

If  the  column  showing  the  number  of  families  reporting  a 
surplus  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that  the  percentage  here 
increases  from  28  in  the  $600  group  to  42  in  the  $1000  group. 
The  ?8oo  families,  which  report  the  largest  percentage  of  families 
with  deficit,  report  also  the  largest  percentage  of  families  with  a 
surplus,  48  per  cent.,  and  the  smallest  percentage  (22)  of  families 
with  balance  within  §25.  An  examination  of  the  tabulation  by 
nationalities  furnishes  an  explanation  of  these  variations.  In  the 
$800  income-group,  only  3  families  of  our  second  nationality-group 
(Bohemians,  Russians,  Austrians,  Italians)  report  a  deficit,  or  8 
per  cent.,  while  of  the  37  families  in  the  first  nationality-group 
(Americans,  Teutonic  nations,  Irish,  colored)  19,  or  50  per  cent., 
report  a  deficit.  The  standard  set  by  the  nations  of  Southern 
Europe  can  be  attained  on  §800  much  more  certainly  than  the 
American  standard. t 

The  figures  for  the  various  nationalities  taken  by  income-groups 
and  as  a  whole  tend  to  confirm  the  inference  that  has  been  made 
regarding  the  difference  between  the  American  standard  and 
that  of  the  natives  of  Southern  Europe.    Only  32  of  the  86  families 


Average  Average  Total 

*  Income  Groups.                           Total  Income.  Expenditure. 

$600  to     $699                                $650.17  $650.57 

700  to       799                                  748.83  735-Q8 

Sco  to      899                                 846.26  811.88 

900  to      999                               942.03  906.70 

1.000  to   1,099                            1,044.48  1,009.57 


t  It  appears  further  that  these  37  families  of  the  first  group  contain  an  excep- 
tional proportion  of  families  with  high  equivalents  in  demand  for  food. 

230 


RELATION  OF  INCOME  TO  EXPENDITURE 

reporting  a  deficiency  are  in  the  4  nationalities  representing  South- 
ern Europe,  although  these  4  comprise  a  full  half  of  the  318 
families  under  discussion.  Further,  of  these  32  families  only  1 1 
are  found  in  the  3  income-groups  above  $800.  If  we  look  at  the 
families  reporting  a  surplus,  we  find  that  more  than  50  per  cent, 
of  all  Russian,  Austrian,  and  Italian  families  report  a  surplus  as 
against  only  23  per  cent,  of  the  American  and  Teutonic  families. 
Even  on  incomes  between  $600  and  $800,  among  the  combined 
Russian,  Austrian  and  Italian  families,  a  surplus  is  reported 
by  39  per  cent,  of  the  families  in  the  $600  group  and  by  49  per  cent, 
in  the  $700  group,  as  compared  with  17  per  cent,  of  the  combined 
nationalities  of  the  first  group  (American,  Teutonic,  Irish,  colored) 
in  the  $600  group,  and  21  per  cent,  in  the  $700  group. 

Taking  all  incomes  together,  the  largest  percentage  of  families 
with  deficit  is  found  among  the  colored  people  (43  per  cent.); 
the  next  largest  (37  per  cent.)  is  reported  by  the  American  families ; 
the  largest  percentage  with  surplus  is  58,  which  falls  to  the 
Italians;  next  come  the  Russians,  with  51  per  cent.;  while  the 
lowest  percentage,  as  has  already  been  stated,  is  found  among 
the  American  and  Teutonic  families. 

The  economic  disadvantage  of  the  family  not  drawing  upon 
other  sources  of  income  than  the  father's  earnings  appears  in  a 
comparison  of  the  standing,  as  regards  surplus  and  deficit,  of 
the  families  of  this  sort  and  families  with  a  composite  income. 
This  may  be  found  in  Tables  1 21-123  (pages  237-239).  In  every 
income-group  from  $500  up  to  $1100,  the  percentage  of  families 
reporting  a  deficit  is  larger  among  the  families  supported  only  by 
the  father  than  in  the  other  class;  the  percentage  reporting  surplus 
is  smaller  in  the  greater  number  of  income-groups,  and  for  these 
families  as  a  whole,  than  for  the  families  with  composite  income. 

A  survey  of  the  various  nationalities  represented  in  the  tables 
shows  the  same  tendency  in  favor  of  the  families  with  composite 
income  (Tables  121  and  122,  pages  237-238).  For  the  67  American 
families,  45  per  cent,  of  those  supported  by  the  father  alone  report 
a  deficit,  and  26  per  cent,  of  the  families  with  composite  income. 
The  percentage  of  families  reporting  a  surplus  is  the  same  for 
both  classes,  namely,  22  per  cent.,  but  the  percentage  of  families 
with  even  balance  is  52  for  the  families  with  composite  income  and 

231 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


but  33  for  families  supported  by  the  father  alone.  Among  the 
Irish  and  Russians  only  is  there  an  exception.  However,  there 
are  only  7  Irish  families  altogether  with  composite  income.  Even 
in  the  Russian  families  those  with  composite  income  show  a  larger 
percentage  with  surplus  than  the  families  supported  by  the  father 
alone. 

Considered  from  the  view-point  of  the  content  of  a  standard 
of  living,  this  tendency  indicates  that  where  the  families  are 
compelled  to  resort  to  the  supplementary  sources  of  income,  they 
are  either  content  with  a  lower  standard  of  comforts  than  families 
of  the  other  class,  or  are  able  to  attain  it  at  a  lower  expense. 
Put  in  another  form,  it  appears  that  many  families  send  their 
children  to  work  at  an  early  age,  and  cramp  their  housing  accommo- 
dations by  taking  lodgers,  in  order  to  lay  up  money,  rather  than 
to  maintain  a  given  standard  of  living  in  their  current  expendi- 
tures. This  interpretation  is  supported  by  corroborative  details 
in  a  large  number  of  the  individual  schedules  for  families  with 
composite  income,  especially  those  of  the  families  of  foreign  birth. 

The  under- fed,  under -clothed,  and  over -crowded  families 
(Tables  124-126,  pages  240-242),  as  has  already  been  shown, 
make  a  better  showing  in  keeping  expenditures  within  income 
than  do  the  families  as  a  whole.  This  indicates  that  on  the  lower 
incomes,  where  most  of  these  cases  with  sub-normal  standard 
are  found,  an  even  balance  or  a  surplus  can  be  attained  only  by 
curtailing  expenditures  for  necessaries  below  the  point  of  meeting 
the  requirements  of  healthy  existence.  This  inference  is  further 
substantiated  by  noting  the  location,  by  income-classes,  of  the 
families  that  are  reported  as  below  the  minimum  standards 
assumed.  Table  124  (page  240)  shows  that  two-thirds  of  the  33 
families,  both  under-fed  and  under-clothed,  have  incomes  under 
$800;  two-thirds  (29  out  of  45)  of  the  families  both  under-fed  and 
over-crowded,  and  two-thirds  (56  out  of  81)  of  the  families  under- 
clothed  and  over-crowded  are  likewise  in  the  same  income-classes. 
Fourteen  of  the  20  families  below  standard  in  all  three  respects 
are  in  the  $600  and  $700  income-groups,  5  are  in  the  $800  group, 
and  only  1  among  the  families  with  incomes  above  $900. 

Table  127  (page  243)  shows  the  returns  made  as  to  savings,  and 
as  to  insurance  that  is  comparable  with  saving;  that  is,  where  the 

232 


RELATION  OF  INCOME  TO  EXPENDITURE 


policy,  whether  an  ordinary  life  policy,  or  one  of  the  endowment 
type,  is  for  a  sum  that  represents  something  more  than  burial  ex- 
penses. The  table  shows  the  number  of  families  reporting  that 
they  had  savings  in  one  form  or  another,  and  the  number  reporting 
an  insurance  policy  of  $500  or  over,  the  limit  of  $500  being  arbi- 
trarily assumed  as  marking  something  more  than  the  ordinary  indus- 
trial or  burial  insurance.  1 1  should  be  remembered  that  not  all  fam- 
ilies reporting  a  surplus  of  income  over  expenditure  admitted  pos- 
sessing savings  or  investments  in  any  form;  hence  the  numbers  in 
the  table  doubtless  are  under-statements.  At  the  same  time, 
there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the  concealment  of  savings  and 
investment  would  be  more  frequent  in  one  income-group  than  in 
another. 

Taking  the  figures  as  they  stand,  savings  are  reported  by 
15  per  cent,  of  the  $600  families,  20  per  cent,  of  the  $700  families, 
38  per  cent,  of  those  with  incomes  between  $800  and  $900,  23  per 
cent,  of  those  in  the  $900  group,  and  45  per  cent,  of  the  $1000 
families.  Insurance  of  $500  or  more  is  reported  in  about  the  same 
proportion  of  families  in  each  income-group,  and  by  56,  or  18  per 
cent.,  of  the  318  families  under  consideration.*  These  figures,  so 
far  as  they  go,  show  that  saving  is  relatively  infrequent  until  the 
?8oo  line  is  reached. f 

The  converse  of  savings  is  borrowing  (Table  128,  page  244). 
Here,  too,  the  reports  cannot  be  assumed  to  be  inclusive  of  all 
actual  cases  among  our  families.  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  bor- 
rowing did  occur  in  every  case  where  it  is  reported.  Pawning 
is  reported  in  about  half  of  the  cases  of  borrowing.  Only  42  of 
the  318  families  admit  borrowing,  and  23  pawning.  Inasmuch  as 
the  amount  borrowed  is  not  in  every  case  stated,  it  is  not  possible 
always  to  distinguish  between  small  sums  borrowed  in  anticipa- 
tion of  pay-day,  and  loans  of  considerable  sums  to  meet  a  serious 
deficiency  of  income,  or  provide  for  an  extraordinary  emergency. 

*  By  nationalities,  the  American  families  report  savings  in  the  smallest  number 
of  cases  (save  the  Irish),  and  the  largest  number  of  cases  of  life  insurance.  The 
Italians  report  the  largest  proportion  cf  families  with  savings  (29  out  of  57),  but 
no  insurance  for  as  much  as  $500.  About  one-third  of  the  Russian  and  of  the 
Teutonic  families  report  savings. 

t  The  savings  are  not  always  invested  in  savings  banks.  Several  families  re- 
ported buying  lots  in  Long  Island  or  New  Jersey;  one  or  two  reported  making 
additions  to  business  capital. 

233 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Taking  the  figures  for  what  they  are  worth,  nearly  half  of  the 
cases  of  borrowing  reported  (20  out  of  42)  are  in  the  $600  income- 
group;  one-quarter  are  in  the  I700  group.  The  pawning  reported 
is  likewise  nearly  half  of  it  in  the  $600  families.  This  corroborates 
the  suggestion  already  made,  that  the  task  of  making  both  ends 
meet  is  too  severe  to  be  successfully  accomplished  in  ordinary  cir- 
cumstances, on  all  incomes  under  $800,  without  a  lowering  of  the 
standard  of  living  below  the  normal  demands  of  health,  working 
efficiency,  and  social  decency.* 

*  The  question,  "In  case  of  retrenchment,  what  expenditures  are  curtailed?" 
while  not  eliciting  all  that  was  hoped  for,  brought  out  some  suggestive  answers. 
In  one  case  it  is  reported  that  "In  case  of  retrenchment  they  live  principally  on 
bread  and  coffee  or  tea,  curtailing  all  other  expenses  for  food."  In  other  cases 
clothing,  amusements,  and  certain  articles  of  food  are  mentioned.  More  eloquent 
than  these  answers  are  the  pages  of  the  books  that  show  the  severest  struggle  with 
poverty, — the  absence  of  entries  for  newspapers,  society  dues,  recreation  in  any  form. 
The  meager  diet  is  epitomized  in  this  quotation:  "I  believe  we  can  eat  more,  but 
it  has  to  be  sufficient."  Another  family  buys  cracked  eggs:  "They  are  much 
cheaper,  about  one  cent  each."  Economy  in  dress  is  well  represented  by  the 
statement  regarding  the  expenditures  for  hats  of  a  woman  married  some  ten  years, 
"One  hat,  bought  long  before  she  knew  him." 


234 


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237 


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238 


RELATION  OF  INCOME  TO  EXPENDITURE 


TABLE  123.— SURPLUS  AND  DEFICIT.    NUMBER  AND  PER  CENT. 
OF  FAMILIES  REPORTING.— BY  SOURCES  OF 
INCOME  AND  INCOME-GROUP. 


u 

s 

a 
< 

Ct. 

Families  Supported  by  Father 
Alone. 

Families  Having  Composite 
Income. 

Income. 

J  MBER  OF  1 

er  of 
ilies. 

Balance 
within 
$25.00 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

[  Families. 

Balance 
within 
$25.00 

■" 

Surplus. 

Deficit. 

)TAL  Nl 

Numb 
Fami 

imber. 

r  Cent. 

imber. 

•  Cent. 

imber. 

-  Cent. 

imber  0: 

imber. 

:  Cent. 

imber. 

3 

imber.  1 

:  Cent. 

H 

S3 

55 

S3 
Pm 

u 

55 

Q 

PL) 

j 

55 

u 

Dm 

$400  to  $499 

g 

6 

5 

J7 

2 

2 

ICO 

$500  to  $599 

M 

6 

43 

4 

28.5 

4 

28.5 

3 

2 

67 

I 

33 

$600  to  $699 

72 

46 

20 

43 

12 

26 

14 

31 

11 

42 

8 

3! 

7 

27 

$700  to  $799 

79 

40 

14 

35 

15 

38 

11 

27 

39  19 

49 

11 

28 

9 

23 

$800  to  S899 

73 

22 

4 

19 

10 

45 

8 

36 

5i 

12 

24 

25 

49 

14 

27 

$000  to  $000 

33 

12 

36 

12 

36 

9 

28 

30 

15 

5o 

10 

33 

5 

17 

$1000  to  S1699 

3i 

8 

1 

12 

3 

38 

4 

50 

23 

8 

35 

10 

43 

5 

22 

$1100  to  $1199 

18 

7 

3 

42 

2 

29 

2 

29 

1 1 

5 

45-5 

5 

45-5 

1 

9 

$1200  to  $1299 

8 

4 

2 

5o 

1 

25 

1 

25 

4 

1 

25 

1 

25 

2 

5o 

$1300  to  S1399 

8 

2 

2 

100 

6 

1 

17 

2 

33 

3 

5o 

$1400  and  over 

14 

3 

1 

33 

1 

33 

1 

33 

11 

2 

18 

8 

73 

1 

9 

Total  

39i 

185 

68 

37 

62 

33 

55 

30 

206 

78 

38 

81 

39 

47 

23 

$400  to  $599 

25 

20 

11 

55 

4 

20 

5 

25 

5 

4 

80 

1 

20 

$600  to  $1099 

3i8 

149 

5i 

34 

52 

35 

46 

3i 

169 

65 

38 

64 

38 

40 

24 

$1100  and  over 

48 

16 

6 

37-5 

6 

37-5 

4 

25 

32 

9 

28 

16 

5o 

7 

22 

239 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  124. — NUMBER  OF  FAMILIES  BELOW  STANDARD  AS  RE- 
GARDS BOTH  FOOD  AND  CLOTHING,  BOTH  FOOD  AND  SHEL- 
TER, OR  BOTH  SHELTER  AND  CLOTHING.— BY  NATIONALITY 
AND  INCOME. 


Nationality. 


United  States 

Teutonic  

Irish  

Colored  

Bohemian... 

Russian  

Austrian,  etc. 
Italian  

Total  


$600  to  $699 


S  w 

tj~  tj  p  *g  v 
a  V  I  a  ft !  a  £ 


j  i*TJ  \  u  <u 
i  «  fl  i  <u  > 

o 


to 

s  5 


2 
2 
12 

28 


11 


$700  to  $799 


19 

7 
7 
6 

3 

9 
14 

79 


-g  o 


PS 

•§p 


Its'  5 1 


|o 

a -a 


P  3 

!so 


15  28 


$800  to  $899 


13 

9 
7 
8 

3 
12 

9 
73 


J*. 

«J  o 

e  V  c  h 
P  s  P  2 

TJ  1    u  U 

|&  |o 


Sl3 

TJ 


$900  to  $999 

$1000  to  $1099 

Total. 

Nationality. 

Total  Number  of  Families. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Under-clothed. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Overcrowded. 

Number  Under-clothed  and 
Over-crowded. 

Number  Under-fed,  Under- 
clothed,  and  Over-crowded. 

Total  Number  of  Families. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Under-clothed. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Over-crowded. 

Number  Under-clothed  and 
Over-crowded. 

Number  Under-fed,  Under- 
clothed,  and  Over-crowded. 

Total  Number  of  Families. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Under-clothed. 

Number  Under-fed  and 
Over-crowded. 

Number  Under-clothed  and 
Over  crowded. 

Number  Under-fed,  Under- 
clothed,  and  Over-crowded. 

United  States.. 

16 

I 

8 

67 

4 

4 

7 

2 

Teutonic  

1 1 

8 

39 

3 

2 

1 

5 
2 

1 

24 
28 

2 

6 

I 

1 

I 

3 

5 

4 

8 

4 
9 
7 

I 

14 
57 

32 

1 

2 

3 

I 

I 

6 

14 
6 

18 

14 
13 

IO 

Austrian,  etc  . . 

3 

1 

8 

5 

9 

2 

6 

57 

2 

2 

3i 

2 

Total  

63 

2 

4 

7 

I 

3i 

I 

3i8 

33 

45 

81 

20 

240 


RELATION  OF  INCOME  TO  EXPENDITURE 


TABLE  125. — FAMILIES  UNDER-FED,  UXDER-CLOTKED,  AND  OVER- 
CROWDED.   NUMBER  AND  PERCENTAGES.— BY  INCOME. 


Income. 

AMIUES. 

Under- 
fed. 

Under- 

CLOTHED. 

Over- 
crowded. 

Under- 
fed and 
Under- 

CLOTHED. 

Under- 
fed and 

Over- 
crowded. 

Under- 

CLOTHED 
AND 

Over- 
crowded. 

E* 

Number  oi 

Number. 

a 

0 

u 

S3 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

u 

0 

,0 
g 

3 

Per  Cent. 

Number. 

Per  Cent. 

$400  to  $499 

Q 

0 

g 

IOO 

7 

88 

5 

°3 

7 

00 

5 

62 

4 

5° 

$500  to  $599 

17 

II 

65 

15 

88 

12 

7i 

10 

59 

8 

47 

9 

53 

$6co  to  $699 

72 

24 

33 

45 

63 

41 

57 

13 

18 

14 

19 

28 

39 

$700  to  $799 

79 

24 

3° 

4i 

52 

46 

58 

II 

14 

J5 

19 

28 

35 

$800  to  $899 

73 

16 

22 

23 

32 

39 

53 

7 

10 

11 

15 

18 

25 

$900  to  $999 

63 

5 

8 

16 

25 

25 

40 

2 

3 

4 

6 

7 

» 

$1000  to  $1099 

31 

3 

10 

1 

3 

9 

30 

1 

3 

$iico  to  $1199 

18 

3 

6 

10 

21 

$1200  to  $1299 

8 

$1300  to  $1399 

8 

$1400  and  over 

14 

•• 

.. 

Total  

39 1 



$400  to  $599 

25 

76 

22 

88 

17 

68 

17 

68 

13 

52 

13 

52 

$600  to  $799 

151 

48 

32 

86 

57 

87 

24 

16 

J9 

56 

37 

SSco  to  SS99 

73 

16 

22 

23 

32 

39 

53 

7 

10 

n 

i5 

18 

25 

Sqco  to  $1099 

94 

8 

9 

17 

,s 

34 

3* 

2 

2 

5 

5 

7 

Si  ico  and  over 

48 

3 

6 

10 

21 

:6 


24I 


Income. 

From  other 

Sources. 

JU33  J3(J 

H   NN  -tOO 
rt  u->  O 

a«  o 

CROWDED  WITH 

i^nc  oo  O  r-~ 

H   CI'  CI  H 

CO00  «0 
rt  CN  <N 

From  Father 
only. 

O  rOOO  O  <N 
Ifl  <t  (N  N 

HI  00  O 
to  (N  ro 

Over 

<tO   H  Old 
«N    tN  M 

<*  H  M 
*M  M 

•aaaAvoao 
-H3A0  *o  aaawriM 

m  vO  O  to  O 
rj-  rj-  f<5  (H 

r-»  O  rt 

WITH 

n  other 
urces. 

JU33  J3J 

rf  rf  CO   O  O 
to  t^-'O  O 

00  CO  O 

Q 

W  . 

j^quin^ 

W     <N  00     M  M 

H    <N    H  M 

fOOO  <N 
ro  w  h 

JDER-CLO' 

Incoi 

From  Father 
only. 

•JU33  J3<J 

(N    <N  O 

O  w  to 

S» 

uaquin^ 

rt  On  lO  lO  • 
ro  W  • 

<o  to  to 
to 

•aaHXOTD 
-aaciN.fi  ao  aaHwn^ 

tO  M     tO  O  M 

00    M  H 

SCO  ME. 

From  other 
Sources. 

•jua3  laj 

rt  w  O  O 
<T>  tooo  00  O 

O  m  00 

TtOO  00 

•ER-FED  WITH  I] 

uaquinx 

O  <T>  CO  rt  ro 

CI   CO  t"» 

<N  HI 

i  Father 
>nly. 

•;ua3 

fOO  o  o  • 
vo  •<*■  m  ei  • 

Tt    O  « 

1/1  H  H 

H 
Z 

From 

G 

uaquin^j 

to  m  ro  H  • 

vO   CO  m 

•aaa-HaaNQ  aaajin^ 

rt  -tO  to  ro 

<S    «N  M 

00  vO  00 
-t  M 

•saiTiRVji  ao  aaawoN 

«N   O  fO  fO  m 

H1   CO  rt 

ON   CN   ON   CV  O 

On  On  O  O  On 
NO  t—00  o  o 

c  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 
o  o  o  o  o 

no  r-oc  On  O 


On  On  On 

t^-og  o 
o  o  o 


242 


•sSuutfg 


•aouiBjnsui 


M  H 


•S3UTA'8S 


s 

so 


•s»au«s 


NOh«     ,        po  O  !  00 


•soireiTisui 


•sScrtABg 


•3Du-Bjnsai 


•s3uta«s 


•saranvj 
io  asanas 


e  <u  •£  o  o  3  3  d 


D 

55  . 
<  « 


•sSmA«g 


00 
in  *-< 


•SDtrejnsai  ^ 


o 
o 


•sSuubs 


©<-o 


o  . 

©-* 


•aDtreinsuj 


•s8tnA«s 


o  •aDtreinsuj 

00  I  

©m 


•sSaiA'ES 


00 
©-* 


■s3uu«s 


£0  xatoms^ 


243 


•poMoxiog 


g  -paMoxiog 


•paiLiveg 


•paMOiiog 


•pauAvuj 


•paMOJiog 


•pao^-eg 


•paMOxiog 


•pauAveg 


•paMOXiog 


•S3ITIKVJ 


vC    COM    N    m  l^tOl^ 


3  :  :  :  c  :  ?  : 

w  °  r-  o  u  '«  -  .5 

•  -  3  ^  _2  w  to  M 

C  o        O  O  3  3  «i 


a 
z 

<  K 

•pauMsg    j  ; 

$160( 

Ov 

•paMOJiog 

$1500  to 
$1599 

'pSOMCg 

•paMoxiog 

$1400  to 
$1499 

•pauAveg 

•paMOuog 

2* 
§§ 

•pauAveg 

•pa^oxiog 

$1200  to 
$1299 

•pauMBg 

'< 

•paMouog 

: 

82 

•pauiisg 

$110 
$1] 

•paAvoxiog 

o 

•pauAiBg 

•paMOJJog 

•panMug 

•paMoxiog 

jo  aasnON 

fO 

> 

H 

3 
< 
z 
o 

< 
2 

c 
.2 

ii 
c 

< 

244 


CONCLUSIONS 


Conclusions 

1.  It  seems  safe  to  conclude  from  all  the  data  that  we  have  been 
considering,  that  an  income  under  $800  is  not  enough  to  permit 
the  maintenance  of  a  normal  standard.  A  survey  of  the  detail 
of  expenditure  for  each  item  in  the  budget  shows  some  manifest 
deficiency  for  almost  every  family  in  the  $600  and  $700  groups. 
The  housing  average  shows  scarcely  more  than  3  rooms  for  5  persons. 
Three-fifths  of  the  families  have  less  than  4  rooms  and  more  than 
1 J  persons  to  a  room.  Fuel  is  gathered  on  the  street  by  half  of 
the  $600  families  and  by  more  than  one-third  of  the  $700  families. 
One-third  of  the  $600  families  are  not  able  to  afford  gas.  One- 
third  of  the  $600  families  are  within  the  22-cent  minimum  limit  for 
food,  and  30  per  cent,  of  the  $700  families  spend  22  cents  or  under. 
In  the  same  way  the  average  expenditure  for  clothing  in  neither 
of  these  groups  reaches  $100,  and  30  per  cent,  of  the  families  are 
in  receipt  of  gifts  to  eke  out  the  supplies  of  clothing.  In  sickness 
the  dispensary  is  the  main  dependence  of  these  families,  each  of 
whom  spends  less  than  $10  annually  in  the  average,  on  account  of 
health,  and  only  1  family  in  10  in  the  $600  group,  and  1  in  6  of  the 
$700  group,  spends  anything  for  the  care  of  the  teeth.  The  returns 
as  to  the  furnishing  of  the  houses  show  that  in  the  §600  and  $700 
groups  adequate  furnishing  is  scarcely  attained  as  the  rule,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  could  be  kept  up  with  the  average  ex- 
penditure reported  for  this  purpose.  In  regard  to  membership 
in  organizations,  such  as  labor  unions  and  churches,  $1100  does 
not  permit  generous  co-operation,  and  the  families  in  the  lower 
income-groups  are  seen  to  be  represented  in  smaller  proportion  in 
these  organizations  than  are  the  families  in  higher  income-groups. 
Recreation  and  education  are  reduced  to  their  lowest  terms,  save 
in  so  far  as  they  may  be  had  without  expense.  Items  included 
under  the  head  of  miscellaneous  expenditures  represent,  to  a 
certain  extent,  the  modest  comforts  above  physical  necessities,  and 
the  average  of  $25  or  $30  puts  a  pretty  narrow  limit  to  what  may 
be  enjoyed  in  this  category.  As  to  provision  for  the  future, 
industrial  or  burial  insurance  is  one  of  the  necessities  that  the 
poorest  families  provide,  and  the  returns  show  cases  where  some- 

245 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

thing  is  saved  out  of  a  $700  income,  but  the  savings  are  at  the 
expense  of  essentials  of  the  present,  as  is  seen  in  the  number  of 
under-fed  families  reporting  a  surplus  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

2.  On  the  other  hand,  an  income  of  $900  or  over  probably 
permits  the  maintenance  of  a  normal  standard,  at  least  so  far  as  the 
physical  man  is  concerned. 

An  examination  of  the  items  of  the  budget  shows  that  the 
families  having  from  §900  to  §1000  a  year  are  able,  in  general,  to 
get  food  enough  to  keep  soul  and  body  together,  and  clothing  and 
shelter  enough  to  meet  the  most  urgent  demands  of  decency. 
Sixty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  $900  families  have  4  rooms  or  more, 
the  average  number  of  rooms  being  3.75.  The  average  expenditure 
for  fuel  allows  comfortable  provision;  one-quarter  of  the  families 
report  gathering  wood  on  the  streets.  Only  1  family  in  6,  in 
Manhattan  only  1  in  15,  is  without  gas.  The  average  expenditure 
for  food  is  a  trifle  over  $400,  enough  to  provide  adequate  nourish- 
ment, and  only  5  families  out  of  63,  or  1  in  12,  report  less  than  the 
minimum  of  22  cents  per  man  per  day.  As  to  clothing,  gifts  are 
reported  still  in  one-fourth  of  the  cases,  but  the  average  amount 
expended  is  between  Si 30  and  §140,  and  3  families  out  of  every  4 
spend  more  than  §100.  Dispensaries  and  free  hospitals  are  not  for 
the  §900  and  §1000  families  the  main  dependence  in  cases  of 
illness.  The  expenditures  for  furniture  indicate  that  the  existing 
outfit  is  fairly  well  maintained  and  the  equipment  as  it  stands  is 
reported  fairly  comfortable  in  the  case  of  three-fourths  of  the  §900 
families,  and  of  seven-eighths  in  the  $1000  group.  Participation  in 
the  benefits  of  labor  unions  or  religious  and  fraternal  organizations 
becomes  possible  to  the  majority  of  the  families,  and  some  margin 
is  available  for  the  pursuit  of  amusements  and  recreation,  the 
purchase  of  books  and  papers,  and  the  indulgence  of  personal 
tastes  outside  of  the  indispensable  necessities  of  existence. 

3.  Whether  an  income  between  $800  and  §900  can  be  made  to 
suffice  is  a  question  to  which  our  data  do  not  warrant  a  dogmatic 
answer.  In  some  respects  the  §800  families  make  no  better  show- 
ing than  those  with  incomes  of  between  $700  and  §800,  for  instance, 
in  regard  to  insurance,  free  fuel,  and  kerosene.  Even  as  to  food, 
there  is  a  large  percentage  of  under-fed  families  in  this  group, 
and  the  average  expenditure  is  only  $25  above  that  of  the 

246 


CONCLUSIONS 


income-group  below.  In  regard  to  housing,  distinctly  better 
conditions  prevail  and  the  limit  of  the  tolerable  is  perhaps  reached 
by  half  of  the  families  in  this  group.  In  regard  to  clothing  also, 
conditions  are  better  than  with  the  $700  families,  but  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  one-third  of  the  73  $800  families  spend  less  than 
$100  for  clothing,  it  seems  an  open  question  whether  a  normal 
standard  is  maintained  in  the  group  as  a  whole.  The  same  query 
arises  regarding  expenditures  for  social  obligations,  amusements, 
and  miscellaneous  purposes.  It  is  important  to  notice  that  in 
this  income-group  the  cases  of  families  below  our  assumed  stan- 
dards for  food,  clothing,  and  housing  are  largely  in  the  second 
(South-European)  group  of  nationalities.  Anticipating  the  para- 
graph which  follows,  it  seems  probable  that  on  $800  to  $900  the 
standards  prevailing  among  Bohemians,  Russians,  Austrians,  and 
Italians  may  be  maintained,  but  that  it  is  the  exception  rather 
than  the  rule  when  the  more  expensive  standards  of  the  Americans 
and  kindred  nationalities  are  maintained  on  this  amount. 

4.  A  comparison  of  the  families  by  nationalities  shows  that 
at  almost  every  point  a  lower  standard  of  expenditures  pre- 
vails among  the  Bohemians,  Austrians,  Russians,  and  Italians  than 
among  the  Americans,  Teutons,  and  Irish.  The  families  of  the 
former  group  on  incomes  above  $700  or  $800  begin  to  save  and 
show  a  surplus,  and  the  sum  total  of  expenditures  above  this 
point  does  not,  as  a  rule,  increase  in  proportion  to  increase  of 
income.  The  families  of  the  other  group,  on  the  contrary,  do 
not  reach  the  saturation  point,  so  to  speak,  below  an  income  of 
§900  or  $1000.  Expenditures  in  these  families  increase  all  along 
the  line  with  increase  of  income,  and  the  point  where  saving  is 
preferred  to  immediate  satisfaction  is  scarcely  reached  at  $1 100. 

5.  In  the  interpretation  of  the  results  of  such  an  investigation 
as  ours,  certain  serious  difficulties  arise.  We  have  assumed 
that  a  normal  standard  of  living  exists,  and  that  it  can  be  main- 
tained by  a  given  family  only  by  the  expenditure  of  a  certain 
minimum  income.  That  is,  when  a  family  falls  below  the  normal 
standard,  the  primary  explanation  is  to  be  sought  in  a  low  income, 
or  if  ultimate  causes  are  sought,  in  the  reasons,  personal  or 
social,  why  this  income  is  so  small.  It  may  be  said,  however, 
that  the  failure  to  maintain  a  normal  standard  may  be  due  to 

247 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


causes  quite  outside  of  the  capacity  of  the  individual  bread- 
winner, or  of  the  economic  forces  that  determine  the  rate  of  wages. 
Two  of  these  outside  considerations  are  the  presence  of  too  many 
mouths  to  be  fed  and  the  inability  to  make  a  wise  use  of  the 
money  earned.  Over-population  on  the  one  hand,  improvidence, 
extravagance,  and  vice  on  the  other,  are  alleged  to  explain  why  so 
many  families  make  so  poor  a  showing  on  $600  or  $700  a  year. 

With  reference  to  the  proposition  that  the  falling  short  of 
a  normal  standard  is  to  be  referred  to  the  increase  of  numbers, 
without  a  corresponding  increase  of  resources,  it  is,  perhaps, 
sufficient  to  point  out  that  however  such  a  tendency  might  oper- 
ate in  its  influence  on  wages,  considered  with  regard  to  the  whole 
mass  of  the  wage-earners,  it  cannot  properly  be  adduced  to 
account  for  the  failure  of  a  family  of  only  normal  size  to  make 
out  a  decent  living  on  its  income.  Not  only  is  the  average  size 
of  all  the  families  in  the  United  States  not  far  from  5  persons,  but 
the  prevailing  average  must  be  near  that  point  if  the  population 
of  the  country  is  to  hold  its  own  in  numbers,  apart  from  im- 
migration. Our  investigation  has  included  only  families  of 
4,  5,  and  6  persons,  almost  exactly  5  on  the  average,  so  that  a 
failure  to  keep  up  to  the  standard  on  the  part  of  a  family  of  only 
normal  size  cannot  be  attributed  to  the  presence  of  too  many 
members  in  it,  unless  we  are  willing  to  set  a  standard  so  high  that 
the  population  at  large  must  be  diminished  in  order  to  reach  it.* 

In  regard  to  the  second  point,  that  the  maintenance  of  the 
standard  depends  more  upon  the  wise  use  of  the  family  income 
than  upon  the  mere  amount  received,  the  schedules  returned  in 
this  investigation  afford  much  evidence  in  its  support.  But  they 
also  furnish  evidence  that  there  are  limits  to  what  can  be  done 
by  thrift  and  economy.  In  Manhattan  decent,  sanitary,  adequate 
housing  cannot  be  had  under  $12  to  $14  a  month — in  many  parts 
of  the  island  more  is  required.  A  family  cannot  be  brought  up  in 
health  and  strength  for  work  on  bread  and  tea,  even  if  these  can  be 
supplied  for  a  dollar  a  week.  Coal  will  burn  up,  coats  and  shoes 
will  wear  out,  notwithstanding  all  that  mending  can  do. 

*  The  average  number  of  persons  per  family,  for  the  families  included  in  this 
investigation  is  almost  exactly  5  in  each  income-group.  The  details  are  given 
in  Table  6A  (page  53). 

248 


CONCLUSIONS 


Further,  to  bring  expenditures  down  to  the  exact  requirements 
of  an  ideal  economy,  even  supposing  that  all  that  is  claimed 
could  hereby  be  saved,  is  not  within  the  ability  of  the  ordinary 
wage-earner's  wife.  She  cannot  spend  hours  in  bargain-hunting, 
in  experimenting  with  new  food-combinations,  in  making  and 
mending  garments.  She  has  not,  and  cannot  be  expected  to  have, 
the  training  and  ability  to  do  all  these  things,  even  if  she  had  the 
time.  She  has  to  take  the  methods  of  housekeeping  that  are  tradi- 
tional in  her  environment  and  apply  them  as  skilfully  and  intelli- 
gently as  her  native  and  acquired  powers  of  mind  and  body  permit. 
What  the  exceptional  woman  might  do  cannot  be  made  the  measure 
of  what  the  average  woman  may  be  expected  to  do,  and  if  the  morale 
and  efficiency  of  the  population  are  to  be  kept  up,  provision  must  be 
made  for  what  the  woman  of  average  capacity  must  have  to  keep 
her  family  up  to  the  prevailing  standard.  Only  when  education 
in  a  better  economy  is  widely  diffused,  will  it  be  possible  to  main- 
tain the  existing  standards  of  physique  and  character  on  a  lower 
absolute  income. 

One  form  of  bad  management  of  the  family  income  is  an  ex- 
cessive expenditure  for  indulgences  like  tobacco  and  drink. 
Where  over-indulgence  results  in  lowered  earning-power,  such 
expenditure  reacts  to  lower  the  standard  by  diminishing  income. 
Where  this  extreme  result  is  not  reached,  expenditures  of  more 
fundamental  importance  are  often  curtailed.  Instances  of  this 
sort  were  not  wanting  in  the  schedules  received,  and  have  been 
alluded  to  in  another  connection.  But  the  number  of  cases  in 
which  the  failure  to  come  up  to  the  normal  standard  could  be  at- 
tributed to  over-indulgence  was  not  large  enough  to  warrant  us 
in  making  this  a  comprehensive  explanation.  As  has  often  been 
remarked,  poverty  is  a  cause  of  drink,  as  truly  as  drink  is  a  cause 
of  poverty. 

In  summary,  therefore,  the  results  of  our  investigation  in- 
dicate that,  while  the  personal  factor  does  operate  in  the  case 
of  every  family,  both  as  regards  the  habits  of  the  father  and  the 
managing  ability  of  the  mother,  the  limits  within  which  it  may 
affect  the  actual  sum  total  of  material  comforts  that  make  up  the 
living  of  the  family  are  set  by  social  forces.  These  social  forces 
find  expression,  on  the  one  side,  in  the  income  which  the  family 

249 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


receives — that  is,  in  the  rate  of  wages  received  by  the  father  and 
others  who  are  at  work;  on  the  other  side,  they  are  expressed  in 
the  prices  that  have  to  be  paid  to  get  housing,  food,  and  the  other 
means  of  subsistence.  The  actual  standard  that  prevails  is  set 
primarily,  therefore,  by  the  wages  paid  and  the  prices  charged. 
Into  the  discussion  of  the  causes  that  underlie  these  phenomena 
it  is  no  part  of  our  task  to  enter.  This  investigation  has  aimed  only 
to  show  wherein  the  actual  content  of  the  standard  (what  things, 
and  how  many,  are  had)  varies  as  the  two  jaws  of  the  vise,  wages 
and  prices,  contract  and  relax;  and  to  show  how  the  possibilities 
of  human  well-being  are  modified  in  consequence  of  the  movement 
of  the  external  forces  that  set  the  economic  limits  of  the  standard 
of  living. 


250 


Appendices 


APPENDIX  I 


Report  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  of 

Living 

Seventh  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction.    Held  at  Rochester,  November  13,  1906 

By  Frank  Tucker,  Chairman 

The  progress  of  social  thought  in  this  country  has  been  closely 
related  to  the  National  and  State  Conferences  of  Charities  and 
Correction.  It  is  true  that  the  history  of  the  National  Conference 
begins  with  the  problem  of  the  charitable  and  correctional  in- 
stitutions of  the  State;  it  is  true  that  our  various  State  Conferences 
are  largely  given  over  to  discussion  of  the  administrative  and 
financial  problems  of  institutions  and  activities  dealing  with  the 
wrecked,  the  broken,  the  deficient,  and  those  offending  law; 
but  ever  increasingly  has  there  developed  a  desire  to  get  at  causes 
of  poverty  and  crime,  to  know  the  reasons  for  industrial  inefficiency, 
physical  infirmities,  lack  of  character,  and  subnormal  mental 
capacity.  We  know  the  amount  of  the  bill  we  have  to  pay; 
we  want  to  know  why  it  is  so  big  and  why  it  rolls  up  in  the  face 
of  what  we  call  "prosperous  times." 

The  future  historian  of  social  work  will,  I  am  sure,  record  two 
addresses  as  distinguishing  the  recent  Philadelphia  session  of  the 
National  Conference. 

In  the  Presidential  address  of  Dr.  Devine  we  find  the  spirit 
of  this  Conference,  which  seeks  expression  in  to-night's  session, 
summed  up  in  the  following  passage: 

"  If  I  have  rightly  conceived  the  dominant  idea  of  the  modern 
philanthropy,  it  is  embodied  in  a  determination  to  seek  out  and 
strike  effectively  at  those  organized  forces  of  evil,  at  those  particu- 
lar causes  of  dependence  and  intolerable  living  conditions  which 

253 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


are  beyond  the  control  of  the  individuals  whom  they  injure 
and  whom  they  too  often  destroy." 

In  Dr.  Franker  s  address,  as  Chairman  of  the  Section  on  Needy 
Families,  we  find  a  new  statement  of  the  causes  of  poverty,  and 
in  the  discussion  of  those  causes  we  realize  he  is  really  setting  up 
the  elements  of  a  standard  of  living  which  cannot  be  violated  with- 
out the  social  unit  becoming  a  social  deficit. 

Dr.  Frankel  says:  "Stripped  of  all  verbiage  and  reduced  to  their 
elements,  we  find  that  all  existing  poverty  and  pauperism  are  attri- 
butable and  may  be  attributed  to  one  of  three  major  causes; 
for  the  sake  of  clearness,  however,  we  shall  define  four  causes: 

"i.  Ignorance. 

"2.  Industrial  Inefficiency. 

"3.  Exploitation  of  Labor. 

"4.  Defects  in  governmental  supervision  of  the  welfare  of 
citizens." 

To  discuss  satisfactorily  the  "standard  of  living"  it  is  obvious 
that  we  must  first  endeavor  to  define  the  phrase  in  such  terms  as  to 
permit  it  to  convey  a  common  meaning  to  all  who  use  it.  If  such 
a  definition  can  be  evolved,  the  obvious  next  step  is  to  agree  upon 
the  essentials  of  a  standard  of  living  which  shall  mean,  for  each 
individual,  existence  as  a  happy  and  independent  member  of 
society.  Accepting  these  essentials  as  founded  upon  experience 
and  embodying  the  best  thought  of  social  economists,  it  should 
not  be  difficult  to  measure  them  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents  for 
given  social  units  in  definite  localities.  And,  again,  having  such 
schedules  setting  forth  in  terms  of  dollars  and  cents  the  cost  of  the 
essentials  of  a  standard  of  living  which  will  permit  a  given  social 
unit  in  a  definite  locality  to  exist  in  a  happy,  healthy,  and  indepen- 
dent manner,  it  should  not  be  impossible  to  compare  such  schedules 
of  cost  with  the  known  standards  of  compensation  in  the  same 
localities.  And  by  such  comparisons  alone  shall  we  know  the 
extent  to  which  labor  is  exploited;  and  if  exploited,  we  are  led 
to  inquire  how  the  deficiency  is  made  up.  We  shall  be  led  to 
inquire  the  price  that  society  pays  when  the  work  of  women  and 
children  is  necessary  to  supplement  the  wages  of  the  father.  We 
shall  be  led  to  inquire  the  price  that  society  pays  when  a  portion 
of  it  is  housed  below  the  standard,  is  fed  below  the  standard,  is 

254 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

clothed,  is  warmed,  has  its  rest  and  pleasures,  is  protected  against 
sickness  and  accident,  below  the  standard,  because  that  portion 
is  ignorant  through  lack  of  education,  because  it  is  incapable 
through  lack  of  education,  because  its  services  are  exploited  for  the 
selfish  purpose  of  others,  or  because  of  the  unenlightened  attitude 
of  some  who  conscientiously  (perhaps)  maintain  that  labor  is  a 
commodity  to  be  paid  for  according  to  supply  and  demand, 
without  regard  to  the  essentials  of  a  normal  standard  of  living 
and  the  cost  of  those  essentials. 

And,  again,  having  such  schedules  setting  forth  in  terms  of 
dollars  and  cents  the  cost  of  the  essentials  of  a  normal  standard 
of  living,  have  we  not  found  a  measure  by  which  the  "  adequate 
relief"  of  our  modern  theory  method  of  aiding  dependent  families 
may  be  measured? 

In  short,  it  seems  apparent  that  until  the  essentials  of  a  normal 
standard  of  living  are  set  up  and  accepted,  and  until  investigation 
discloses  the  cost  of  such  essentials  in  definite  localities  for  given 
social  units,  society  cannot  determine: 

Whether  labor  in  that  community  is  exploited  or  adequately 
compensated. 

How  inadequate  compensation  of  the  natural  wage-earner  is 
supplemented  and  at  what  cost  to  the  well-being  of  the 
family. 

Whether  our  educational  systems  are  effective  in  preparing  boys 

and  girls  for  the  problems  of  our  modern  life. 
Whether  the  standards  by  which  our  material  relief  for  dependent 

families  is  measured  are  really  "adequate"  or  not. 
Nor,  in  the  absence  of  this  knowledge,  can  labor  in  its  various 
subdivisions  intelligently  move  from  one  locality  to  another. 
Offhand  it  seems  a  simple  thing  to  define  the  phrase  "standard 
of  living,"  but  when  the  attempt  is  made,  terms  that  define  are 
found  to  be  elusive,  and  the  natural  inclination  is  to  seek  a  defi- 
nition by  describing  the  essential  elements  of  a  normal  standard 
of  living.  In  the  hope  that  it  will  stand  the  test  of  analysis  and 
as  offering  a  basis  for  our  discussion  the  following  definition  is  put 
forth: 

A  standard  of  living  is  a  measurement  of  life  expressed  in  a  daily 
routine  which  is  determined  by  income  and  the  conditions  under 

255 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


which  it  is  earned,  economic  and  social  environment  and  capacity 
for  distributing  the  income. 

A  normal  standard  of  living  is  one  which  permits  each  individual 
of  a  social  unit  to  exist  as  a  healthy  human  being,  morally,  mentally, 
and  physically. 

A  normal  standard  of  living  requires  as  essential  elements 
in  the  daily  routine  of  life: 

I.  Government — for  control  of  common  acts,  needs,  and 

property. 

II.  Compensation  for  labor — that  there  may  be  secured 
for  the  family: 

1.  Education. 

2.  Shelter. 

3.  Food. 

4.  Clothing. 

5.  Fuel. 

6.  Light. 

7.  Furniture  and  Household  Furnishings. 

8.  Transportation. 

9.  Recreation. 

10.  Provision  for  sickness  and  accident,  dental,  surgical, 

and  other  care  necessary  for  the  establishment  and 
preservation  of  sound  health. 

1 1 .  Savings. 

12.  Insurance. 

13.  Burial  (through  Insurance  or  Savings). 

It  should  not  be  difficult  to  bring  about  a  general  acceptance 
of  the  essentials.  The  list  given  above  is  generally  accepted 
by  those  who  have  written  recently  on  this  subject.  It  is  varied 
but  slightly  by  a  group  of  social  workers  who  have  prepared  budgets 
for  given  social  units  which  will  be  referred  to  later. 

At  this  point  two  questions  naturally  arise: 

Has  the  cost  of  these  essentials  been  determined? 

Can  the  cost  be  reasonably  determined  ? 

To  the  first  question  I  answer  that  so  far  as  I  know  the  present- 
day  writers  on  social  economics  have  assumed  certain  round  sums 
as  the  cost  of  living;  as,  for  instance,  Dr.  Devine  in  his  "  Principles 
of  Relief"  says: 

256 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

"Recognizing  the  tentative  character  of  such  an  estimate, 
it  may  be  worth  while  to  record  the  opinion  that  in  New  York 
City,  where  rentals  and  provisions  are,  perhaps,  more  expensive 
than  in  any  other  large  city,  for  an  average  family  of  five  persons 
the  minimum  income  on  which  it  is  practicable  to  remain  self- 
supporting,  and  to  maintain  any  approach  to  a  decent  standard 
of  living,  is  $600  a  year." 

Professor  Albion  W.  Small  is  quoted  as  saying  in  a  lecture: 
"No  man  can  live,  bring  up  a  family,  and  enjoy  the  ordinary 
human  happiness  on  a  wage  of  less  than  $1000  a  year." 

Mr.  John  Mitchell  estimates  the  minimum  wage  that  will 
maintain  a  workingman  and  his  family  according  to  the  "American 
standard"  as  $600  a  year. 

Nor  have  I  been  able  to  find  any  government  tables  which  are 
based  on  given  units  and  definite  localities. 

The  estimate  of  Dr.  Devine  has  a  value  in  that  it  is  for  a  given 
social  unit  in  a  definite  locality,  but  it  is  insufficient  in  that  it  does 
not  set  up  a  standard  of  essentials  and  the  total  is  not  reached  by  a 
detailed  estimate  of  the  cost  of  each  element — and  he  frankly 
says  so.  Professor  Small's  estimate  is  without  value;  it  is  a 
sweeping  generalization  dealing  with  no  unit,  measured  by  econo- 
mic conditions  in  no  locality,  and  without  educational  effect 
because  it  is  refuted  by  the  experience  of  many  men  in  many 
places.  While  Mr.  Mitchell's  estimate  in  its  explanation  conveys 
a  more  definite  picture  than  Professor  Small's,  it  is  of  doubtful 
value  because  it  is  a  generalization,  and  the  processes  by  which 
it  is  arrived  at  are  not  set  out  for  our  judgment  as  to  their  sound- 
ness. 

Only  those  estimates  of  the  cost  of  a  normal  standard  of  living 
are  sound  which  are  based  on  a  given  social  unit  and  on  the  cost 
of  the  essential  elements  of  that  standard  in  a  given  community, 
and  at  a  given  time. 

Can  these  costs  be  determined  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  society 
believe  that  they  are  well  founded  ? 

To  this  question  I  answer,  Yes,  I  believe  they  can.  And  my 
belief  is  the  result  of  a  careful  experiment  to  test  the  possibility  of 
just  such  an  effort.  About  three  months  ago  five  social  workers 
came  together  in  New  York  by  accident,  and  the  above  question 
17  257 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


was  asked.  The  essential  elements  of  a  normal  standard  of  living 
were  agreed  upon — the  list  is  set  out  in  the  earlier  part  of  this 
paper.  The  social  unit  was  fixed  as  a  man  and  his  wife  and  three 
children  under  earning  age.  The  cost  of  each  essential  was  calcu- 
lated in  reasonable  detail  and  with  more  than  an  average  knowledge 
of  economic  conditions.  The  total  when  cast  made  each  man  and 
woman  at  that  meeting  look  at  his  neighbor  and  wonder  if  there 
was  anything  wrong  with  the  figures.  That  total  was  $93 1 ,  which 
meant  a  compensation  of  $3.10  per  day  for  300  working  days 
for  the  natural  bread-winner  of  that  family. 

If  those  figures  were  sound,  it  meant  hard  thinking  for  some 
people  in  that  great  city.  But  were  they  sound?  To  test 
them  this  question  was  put  to  two  groups  of  the  ablest  social  workers 
among  dependent  families  in  New  York — women  familiar  with 
the  necessary  quantities,  qualities,  and  costs  of  the  essentials; 
women  whose  daily  work  it  is  to  deal  with  them. 

"What  items  other  than  the  following  enter  into  a  family 
budget? 

"'I,  Rent;  2,  food  and  drink;  3,  clothing  and  shoes;  4,  light 
and  fuel;  5,  provision  for  sickness  and  accident,  dental,  surgical, 
and  other  care  necessary  for  establishment  and  preservation  of 
sound  health;  6,  insurance;  7,  recreation;  8,  furniture  and 
furnishings;  9,  car-fares;  10,  savings;  11,  spending  money  and 
incidentals. 

"Would  you  eliminate  any  of  these  items  as  unnecessary? 
Will  you  make  up  a  budget  which  will  show  the  cost  of  living 
for  a  family  of  a  man  and  his  wife  and  three  children,  the  children 
being  under  earning  age,  it  being  assumed  that  the  family  is 
housed,  fed,  clothed,  etc.,  in  such  a  way  as  to  preserve  health, 
mind,  and  character,  and  permit  the  man  to  be  a  self-respecting 
citizen,  and  the  children  to  grow  up  as  such?  It  should  also  be 
assumed  that  both  man  and  woman  have  average  character  and 
average  capacity  for  management.  To  sum  up,  what  ought  it  to 
cost  a  normal  family  of  this  size  to  live  in  a  normal  way  under  the 
conditions  that  prevail  in  New  York  at  the  present  time?" 

One  group  consisting  of  six  sent  in  a  combined  estimate  which 
was  the  result  of  their  joint  deliberations;  the  other  group  sent 
in  individual  estimates. 

258 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  estimate  of  the  first  group  was  $942  a  year. 
The  individual  estimates  of  the  second  group  of  ten  showed 
three  divisions.    In  division  one  there  was: 

1  Estimate  $i>449 

1       "    1403 

1       "   i>394 

In  division  two  there  was: 

1  Estimate  $1,078 

1       "    986 

I        "   901 

I       "    900 

1  "    879 

In  division  three  there  were: 

2  Estimates   $768 

In  both  estimates  of  division  three  no  allowance  was  made 
for  medical  services,  furniture  and  furnishings,  savings,  or  in- 
surance. Had  these  items  been  included  these  estimates  would 
have  been  in  the  second  division,  a  fair  average  of  which  is  $950. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  estimates  in  division  one  are  entirely 
consistent,  and  an  examination  of  the  details  of  cost  shows  a  higher 
ideal  of  life  than  that  contemplated  by  the  problem  to  be  answered. 

The  reasonable  establishment  by  these  estimates  of  $950 
a  year  as  the  cost  of  the  essentials  of  a  normal  standard  of  living 
for  the  social  unit  of  a  man  and  his  wife  and  three  children  in  New 
York  City  points  the  way  for  investigations  and  estimates  in  other 
communities  by  a  body  whose  findings  would  carry  weight  in  each 
community  in  which  it  worked. 

But  assuming  that  the  essential  elements  of  a  normal  standard 
are  accepted;  their  cost  for  different  social  units  in  definite  locali- 
ties known;  how  can  this  knowledge  affect  standards  of  compen- 
sation, adequate  compensation  being  necessary  to  the  mainten- 
ance of  the  standard?  and  what  basis  has  society  for  interfering 
between  employer  and  employee  in  a  matter  which  is  personal  to 
them? 

Let  us  answer  the  last  question  first.  It  is  fundamental  that 
society  has  a  right  to  protect  itself  against  the  acts  of  its  individual 

259 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


members  detrimental  to  the  general  welfare.  Poverty  is  detri- 
mental to  the  general  welfare.  Therefore,  society,  which  pays 
the  bill  for  poverty,  has  the  right  to  say  whether  poverty  that  is 
preventable  shall  continue  to  exist.  And  if  a  cause  of  preventable 
poverty  is  the  exploitation  of  labor,  as  Dr.  Frankel  says  it  is,  then 
it  is  the  duty  of  society  to  investigate  and  determine  the  facts;  it 
is  the  right  of  society  to  say  to  the  employer,  "  You  are  not  obliged 
to  employ  this  man  or  woman,  but  if  you  do  you  must  pay  him 
a  living  wage  for  a  given  day's  work  and  you  must  permit  him 
to  work  under  proper  conditions." 

Society  has  been  quick  to  enact  laws  for  the  protection  of 
physical  property  and  dumb  animals,  but  against  the  destruction 
of  human  beings  by  all  the  subtle  causes  growing  out  of  a  subnormal 
standard  of  living  there  is  little  or  no  protection  as  yet.  The  cause 
is  not  difficult  to  find;  we  hold  human  life  too  cheap  and  we  pay 
the  bill  for  its  destruction  by  subtle  causes  too  indirectly. 

At  the  same  time  society  has  the  right  to  say,  and  does  say, 
to  the  employee,  "You  must  live  in  away  that  is  not  detrimental 
to  the  general  good." 

Before  this  audience  one  may  predict,  without  being  thought 
a  visionary,  that  some  of  us  may  live  to  see  a  new  court  created 
to  try  new  social  crimes  which  will  be  recognized  as  growing  out 
of  violations  of  an  established  standard  of  living. 

And  now  let  us  consider  how  knowledge  of  the  cost  of  a  normal 
standard  of  living  can  affect  standards  of  compensation.  In  the 
first  place,  how  are  standards  of  compensation  set  up?  (Having 
in  mind  people  of  moderate  earning  capacity.) 

1.  By  obligation  on  the  part  of  the  employer,  when  organization 

on  the  part  of  labor  is  powerful  enough  to  command  the 
rate  and  supply. 

2.  By  mutual  agreement  on  the  part  of  employer  and  employees 

when  there  is  an  intelligent  conception  by  both  of  the  rights 
of  each. 

3.  By  thought  and  consideration  on  the  part  of  intelligent 

employers  who  consider  the  welfare  of  their  employees  as 
well  as  their  own  interests. 

4.  By  payment  of  what  they  call  "going  wages"  on  the  part 

of  thoughtless  but  not  necessarily  selfish  employers.  (These 
260 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

"going  wages"  have  usually  been  going  for  twenty-five 
years  or  more  and  may  originally  have  had  some  logical 
basis  in  the  conditions  that  prevailed  at  the  time  of  their 
establishment.) 

5.  By  exploitation  on  the  part  of  employer;  the  needs  of 
the  employee  being  used  to  reduce  the  compensation  to  the 
minimum. 

With  that  portion  of  labor  compensated  by  the  first  three 
methods  named  we  need  not  concern  ourselves.  It  usually 
commands  a  sufficient  wage  to  maintain  a  normal  standard  at 
least. 

For  that  body  of  labor  whose  destinies  are  controlled  by  thought- 
less employers  there  would  be  new  hope  if  upon  their  standards 
of  compensation  could  be  fixed  the  light  of  authoritative  statement 
of  what  is  necessary  to  a  normal  standard  of  living  and  what 
these  essentials  cost.  To-day  the  wages  of  hundreds  of  thousands 
of  porters,  cleaners,  drivers,  delivery-men,  clerks,  and  others  are 
fixed  by  employers  on  the  basis  of  what  they  have  been  in  the 
habit  of  paying,  regardless  of  the  cost  of  living  or  any  other  interest 
of  the  employee;  and  to-day  the  working  conditions  of  hundreds 
of  thousands  are  fixed  by  thoughtless  employers  without  regard 
to  the  happiness  or  well-being  of  the  employees.  And  I  regret  to 
say  that  among  this  group  of  offending  employers  may  be  found 
the  managers  of  some  of  our  charitable  institutions  and  activities, 
although  in  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  great  improvement 
in  this  direction. 

Individual  cases  illustrating  the  above  situation  have  multiplied 
in  my  own  experience;  they  might  be  cited  here,  but  time  forbids. 

For  the  thoughtless  employer  there  must  be  an  educational 
campaign  based  on  knowledge;  public  opinion  can  only  be  formed 
when  facts  are  produced.  All  our  life  of  to-day  is  too  much  affected 
by  attitudes  of  mind  which  originate  in  precedents  and  axiomatic 
sayings  based  on  facts  of  years  ago. 

For  the  selfish  exploiter  of  the  dire  needs  of  men  and  women 
there  is  nothing  but  the  stern  arm  of  the  law.  But  law  cannot 
be  intelligently  enacted  unless  there  is  knowledge  of  the  conditions 
that  demand  it.  Law  fixing  a  minimum  daily  wage  must  be 
based  on  knowledge  of  the  requisites  of  a  normal  standard  of  living 

261 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


and  their  cost  in  definite  localities.  We  have  decreed  in  many 
places  the  physical  and  moral  conditions  under  which  labor 
may  be  performed,  and  we  have  decreed  those  conditions  in 
order  that  the  lives  of  men  and  women  may  be  prolonged.  We 
have  decreed  in  many  places  the  physical  and  moral  conditions 
under  which  men  and  women  may  live.  And  why  stop  short 
and  not  say  that  in  that  mutual  relation  of  men  and  women  we 
call  labor,  there  shall  be  paid  by  one  to  another  at  least  sufficient 
to  maintain  a  family  according  to  an  established  normal  standard? 

For  the  intelligence  of  employer  and  competence  of  employed, 
society  is  responsible  through  its  educational  systems.  For 
the  exploitation  of  one  by  the  other  it  is  responsible  through  its 
legislation.  For  intelligent  action  in  both  directions  we  must 
have  facts,  and  facts  can  only  be  obtained  by  investigation  by 
those  who  are  competent  and  fair  seekers  for  truth. 


262 


APPENDIX  II 


Report  of  the  Special  Committee  on  Standard 

of  Living* 

Eighth  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and 
Correction.    Held  at  Albany,  November 
12  to  14,  1907 

By  Lee  K.  Frankel,  Chairman 

To  the  Members  of  the  Conference: 

The  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living  was  appointed  pursuant 
to  a  resolution  adopted  by  the  seventh  New  York  State  Confer- 
ence of  Charities  and  Correction,  which  reads  as  follows: 

Resolved,  that  the  President  of  this  Conference  be  authorized 
to  appoint  a  Committee  of  not  less  than  eight  nor  more  than 
sixteen  to  report  to  this  Conference  what  constitutes  the  essentials 
of  a  normal  standard  of  living,  and  the  cost  of  such  a  standard  of 
living  for  a,  definite  social  unit  at  this  time,  in  the  cities  and  towns 
of  this  State;  and  further 

Resolved,  that  the  raising  of  special  funds  to  defray  the  expenses 
of  this  Committee  be  referred  to  the  Executive  Committee  with 
power. 

Acting  upon  this  resolution,  the  Committee  held  its  first  meet- 
ing on  January  21,  1907.  At  this  meeting  it  was  reported  that 
the  Executive  Committee  had  made  an  appropriation  of  $300 
for  the  work  of  the  Committee,  and  that  when  the  usual  appeal 
for  funds  to  meet  the  expense  of  the  Conference  was  sent  out  in 
the  spring,  a  special  request  was  to  be  included  for  money  to 
meet  the  expenses  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living. 

Under  these  conditions,  the  Committee  decided  to  attempt  to 
obtain  the  necessary  information  regarding  the  cost  of  living 

*  The  figures  here  given  correspond  with  those  in  the  Secretary's  final  report, 
which  differ  in  many  details,  though  not  fundamentally,  from  the  results  of  the 
preliminary  computations. 

263 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


through  voluntary  effort.  The  Committee  was  fortunate  in 
securing  the  services  of  Professor  Robert  C.  Chapin,  of  Beloit 
College,  as  secretary,  until  September,  when  his  college  duties  re- 
quired his  return.  It  is  in  order  at  this  time  to  extend  to  Pro- 
fessor Chapin  the  sincere  thanks  of  the  Committee  for  the  con- 
scientious and  painstaking  services  which  he  has  rendered. 

THE  SCHEDULE 

At  this  meeting,  a  sub-committee  was  appointed  to  prepare 
a  schedule  of  questions  for  the  Committee's  use.  The  schedule 
as  finally  adopted  was  purposely  made  very  comprehensive  so  as 
to  include  every  possible  item  of  income  and  disbursement  of  a 
family's  budget,  and  to  express  at  the  same  time  the  Committee's 
conception  of  the  essentials  of  a  normal  standard  of  living.  A 
copy  of  the  schedule  is  printed  in  Appendix  III,  following  this 
report  (page  283).  In  general,  the  schedule  brings  out  the  sources  of 
the  family  income,  showing  not  only  the  earnings  of  the  members 
of  the  family  of  working  age,  but  likewise  the  income  derived  from 
boarders,  lodgers  and  other  sources.  The  disbursement  account 
was  subdivided  into  twelve  general  headings,  as  follows:  Hous- 
ing; car-fare;  fuel  and  light;  furniture;  insurance;  food;  clothing; 
health;  taxes,  dues  and  contributions;  recreation  and  amusements; 
education  and  reading,  and  miscellaneous. 

Housing.  Under  this  heading  are  included  questions  to 
ascertain  the  type  of  dwelling  occupied  by  the  family;  the  rent 
paid  and  the  rent  of  similar  dwellings  in  the  neighborhood;  the 
size  of  the  rooms  and  the  number  of  rooms  having  direct  access 
to  the  outer  air;  the  size  of  the  yard;  the  distance  from  the  place 
of  business  of  the  working  members  of  the  family,  and  the  dis- 
tance from  the  school  attended  by  the  children.  It  was  deemed 
important  to  determine  whether  the  family  had  a  private  bath- 
room and  a  private  toilet. 

Fuel  and  Light.  No  special  explanation  of  this  subdivi- 
sion is  necessary.  The  questions  in  the  schedule  sought  to 
bring  out  the  kind  and  methods  of  fuel  and  light  used. 

Food.  The  food  schedule  was  very  carefully  itemized,  to 
bring  out  in  detail  the  cost  of  the  actual  food  purchases,  and  to 

264 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

show  the  quantities  used  during  a  week,  from  which  the  amount 
spent  per  annum  could  be  estimated.  The  subdivisions  as  ar- 
ranged in  the  schedule  brought  out,  furthermore,  the  amounts  of 
animal  and  of  vegetable  food.  The  classification  adopted  was 
based  largely  upon  the  reports  of  the  United  States  Commis- 
sioner of  Labor,  upon  investigations  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Agri- 
culture, and  upon  studies  made  by  Professors  Atwater  and  Chit- 
tenden. The  units  adopted  in  these  various  reports  have  been 
adopted  by  the  Committee.  We  have  taken  as  a  unit,  for  the 
purpose  of  this  inquiry,  an  adult  man.  Compared  with  him  an 
adult  woman  consumes  .8  as  much  food;  a  child  of  twelve  con- 
sumes .7;  a  child  of  ten  to  eleven  consumes  .6;  a  child  of  two 
to  five  consumes  .4,  etc.  All  calculations  with  respect  to  the 
cost  of  food  have  been  based  on  these  units  instead  of  upon  the 
actual  number  of  individuals  comprising  the  family.  Meals  taken 
away  from  home  by  the  father  or  other  wage-earners  have  been 
considered  separately  and  have  not  been  added  to  the  general  food 
budget.  The  effort  has  been  made  to  determine  from  the  families' 
statements  whether  the  food  provided  was  wholesome  and  suffi- 
cient. Naturally  a  wide  margin  of  opinion  must  be  allowed  here 
since  the  opinions  of  investigators  are  at  variance.  Again,  the 
questions  under  this  heading  brought  out  the  components  of  the 
meals  partaken  of  by  the  family.  To  determine  with  some  degree 
of  accuracy  and  to  limit  as  largely  as  possible  the  personal  equa- 
tion regarding  the  amount  and  sufficiency  of  food,  100  schedules 
were  submitted  for  examination  to  Dr.  Frank  P.  Underhill, 
assistant  professor  of  Physiological  Chemistry  in  Yale  Univer- 
sity. Dr.  Underhill  analyzed  these  schedules  to  determine  their 
food  values,  in  terms  of  proteids,  fats,  carbo-hydrates  and  calories. 
The  calculations  were  based  on  the  amounts  of  food  materials 
bought,  and  not  on  the  amounts  eaten,  which  necessarily  could  not 
be  determined.  No  allowance  was  made  for  waste.  Results 
of  scientific  value  could  not  be  obtained  in  this  manner,  and  empha- 
sis is  laid  on  the  fact  that  there  has  been  no  intention  of  drawing  any 
conclusions,  the  bases  of  which  would  necessitate  exactness.  All 
that  was  hoped  for  from  the  investigation,  was  the  determination 
in  a  general  way  whether  the  families  were  buying  food  of  the 
amount  and  kind  to  keep  them  in  bodily  health  and  vigor. 

265 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


On  the  basis  of  the  cost  of  food  in  New  York  City,  May,  1907, 
as  shown  by  the  schedules,  Dr.  Underhill  estimates  that  in  gen- 
eral, when  less  than  22  cents  per  man  per  day  is  spent  for 
food,  the  nourishment  derived  is  insufficient;  when  more  than 
22  cents  per  man  per  day  is  expended,  the  family  is  well  nour- 
ished. The  latter  statement  does  not  hold  so  well  as  the 
former.  Of  interest  is  the  relatively  large  quantities  of  fat  bought 
by  both  classes,  which  in  Dr.  Underhill's  opinion  is  uneconomical 
both  financially  and  physiologically.  While  the  failure  of  some 
of  the  families  to  live  well  is  due  to  injudicious  buying,  the  majority 
of  failures  do  not  appear  to  be  due  to  this  cause,  but  to  the  inability 
to  purchase  food  in  sufficient  amount  and  variety  at  less  than  22 
cents  per  man  per  day.  This  amount  will  allow  of  the  purchase 
of  food  containing  proteids,  fats  and  carbo-hydrates,  to  produce  a 
fuel  value  approximating  3000  calories.  The  Committee  is  not 
in  a  position  to  set  up  a  minimum  standard  of  fuel  value.  Vari- 
ous authorities  who  have  written  on  this  subject  give  minimums 
ranging  from  2500  to  7000  calories.  For  the  purpose  of  this  re- 
port, it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  the  standard  mentioned  by  the 
Committee  is  approximately  the  minimum  given  by  those  who 
have  investigated  the  subject. 

Insurance.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  nearly  all  families 
carry  insurance  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  Practically  all  of 
the  insurance  is  in  the  so-called  "industrial  companies,"  for 
which  a  proportionately  high  premium  is  paid.  The  carrying  of 
insurance,  however,  is  no  indication  that  the  family  necessarily 
has  means  for  a  proper  standard  of  living;  in  many  instances  in- 
surance is  carried  at  the  expense  of  food  and  clothing.  Insur- 
ance is  largely  of  the  burial  order,  and  the  amount  received  from 
the  insurance  companies  at  death  is  expended  for  the  payment  of 
the  burial  charges. 

Savings.  Probably  of  all  the  replies  received  in  answer  to 
the  questions  in  the  schedule,  those  under  savings  are  the  least 
satisfactory.  Where  in  many  instances  no  difficulty  was  experi- 
enced in  obtaining  requisite  information  regarding  the  other  sub- 
divisions of  the  schedule,  there  was  hesitancy  or  in  some  in- 
stances even  misstatement  regarding  the  amount  of  savings. 
The  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  in  a  number  of  instances 

266 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON   STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

where  no  savings  were  given,  judging  from  the  schedule  returns 
there  must  have  been  distinct  savings  for  which  no  accounting  is 
made.  On  the  other  hand,  as  appears  later  on  in  the  report,  many 
families  are  ashamed  to  mention  the  fact  that  they  have  bor- 
rowed money  or  sought  the  pawn  shops  to  obtain  necessary 
means  to  live.  That  such  must  have  been  so,  however,  is  likewise 
indicated  by  the  schedules  where  the  disbursements  are  in  excess 
of  the  receipts,  and  where  the  entire  situation  of  the  family  shows 
there  must  have  been  sources  of  income  other  than  those  actually 
admitted. 

Clothing.  What  has  been  said  for  the  food  schedule  holds 
likewise  for  the  clothing  schedule.  Every  possible  expenditure 
for  clothing  for  the  father,  mother  and  children  in  the  family 
has  here  been  included,  together  with  any  expenditures  for  re- 
pairs, laundry,  washing  materials,  new  materials,  and  for  gar- 
ments made  at  home.  Of  extreme  importance  was  the  ascertain- 
ing of  information  regarding  the  amount  of  clothing  which  fam- 
ilies received  as  gifts  from  friends,  employers,  relatives,  benevo- 
lent organizations,  churches,  and  other  sources.  It  does  not  seem 
to  be  infrequent,  judging  from  the  schedules,  for  families  to  pur- 
chase clothing  at  second  hand. 

Health.  Under  this  heading  have  been  included  disburse- 
ments for  physicians,  dentists,  oculists,  nurses,  surgical  appli- 
ances, medicines,  hospital  charges,  dispensary  charges,  spectacles 
and  eye-glasses.  The  questions  under  this  heading  also  show 
the  amount  of  free  medical  attendance  that  has  been  received,  par- 
ticularly from  dispensaries  and  hospitals.  It  may  be  said  here  that 
many  have  omitted  to  mention  gratuitous  treatment  of  this  kind. 

Furniture  and  Furnishings.  The  replies  under  this  heading 
show  expenditures  made  for  various  articles  of  household  equip- 
ment of  the  family.  In  some  instances  a  much  higher  standard 
of  equipment  was  shown  than  would  be  warranted  by  the  family 
income  for  the  year.  The  explanation  of  this  is  obvious.  In 
many  cases,  the  family  had  at  some  previous  period,  at  the  time 
the  equipment  was  provided,  a  larger  earning  ability.  Instances 
are  in  evidence  where  furniture  was  sold  to  meet  living  expenses. 
Much  of  the  furniture,  such  as  washstands,  ice  boxes,  beds,  mirrors, 
and  sewing  machines,  is  bought  on  the  instalment  plan. 

267 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Taxes,  Dues  and  Contributions.  Under  this  heading 
have  been  included  all  disbursements  made  on  account  of  labor 
unions,  fraternal  orders,  benefit  societies,  lodges,  and  religious 
and  social  organizations. 

Recreation  and  Amusement.  The  questions  under  this  sub- 
division were  framed  to  bring  out  not  only  the  amount  of  ex- 
penditure of  the  family  for  recreation  and  amusement,  but  to 
determine  the  manner  in  which  the  family  takes  its  relaxation. 
The  replies  show  expenditures  for  theater,  dances,  excursions  and 
pleasure  trips,  for  toys  and  other  playthings  for  the  children,  and 
other  amusements  of  all  kinds. 

Car-fares.  This  subdivision  includes  car-fares  of  the  wage- 
earners  to  and  from  work,  for  children  to  and  from  school,  and 
disbursements  on  this  account  for  visits,  recreation,  etc. 

Education  and  Reading.  Under  this  heading  are  grouped 
the  expenses  of  children  at  school,  and  disbursements  for  news- 
papers, periodicals,  books,  postage  and  stationery.  The  re- 
plies received  also  brought  out  the  kind  and  titles  of  the  news- 
papers, periodicals  and  books  read  by  the  family,  and  the  extent 
to  which  public  libraries  were  made  use  of. 

Miscellaneous  Expenditures.  Under  this  heading  have 
been  grouped  all  expenses  not  readily  classifiable  under  any 
of  the  above  subdivisions.  Among  other  disbursements  there  are 
funeral  expenses,  legal  expenses,  expenses  for  moving,  interest  on 
debt,  expenditures  for  tobacco,  liquor,  barber,  and  the  personal 
expenditures  of  the  various  members  of  the  family. 

Under  date  of  May  27,  1907,  the  chairman  of  the  Committee 
reported  to  the  Executive  Committee  that  the  effort  to  obtain 
information  from  volunteers  had  met  with  only  indifferent  suc- 
cess. The  schedule  which  the  Committee  had  prepared  had 
been  distributed  throughout  the  city  and  state,  among  settle- 
ment and  charity  workers,  secretaries  of  labor  unions,  college 
students,  etc.,  but  the  returns  at  the  time  of  the  meeting  of  the 
Executive  Committee  were  comparatively  meagre.  The  Execu- 
tive Committee  thereupon  appropriated  $200  additional  for  the 
purposes  of  the  Committee,  and  authorized  the  Committee  to 
receive  money  directly  from  any  source  whatever  for  the  prose- 

268 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

cution  of  its  work.  Sufficient  funds  were  obtained  from  private 
sources  to  enable  the  Committee,  in  June,  to  begin  more  active 
work,  the  results  of  which  are  appended  below. 

Method  of  Investigation.  Three  thousand  schedules  were 
printed.  Of  these  over  400  were  distributed  to  volunteers  en- 
gaged in  social  work,  particularly  to  residents  in  the  various  settle- 
ments and  church  houses,  to  agents  of  charitable  and  relief 
agencies,  to  students  at  the  universities,  and  to  others.  Of  these, 
57  were  returned.  In  the  belief  that  highly  valuable  infor- 
mation could  be  obtained  from  representatives  of  the  trades 
unions,  a  list  of  the  secretaries  and  officers  of  these  organiza- 
tions in  New  York  City  was  obtained  through  Mr.  Robinson, 
the  local  president  of  the  Federation  of  Labor.  To  each  of 
these  officers  a  schedule  was  sent,  together  with  a  letter  of  in- 
struction and  advice,  which  was  subsequently  followed  up  by 
other  letters.  A  total  of  690  of  these  schedules  was  thus  dis- 
tributed: 34  of  them  have  been  returned.  Since  June,  practic- 
ally all  of  the  replies  to  the  schedules  of  Greater  New  York  have 
been  obtained  by  paid  investigators. 

In  obtaining  replies  to  questions  in  the  schedules,  the  effort 
was  made  to  limit  the  inquiry  to  a  family  of  five  individuals,  com- 
posed of  husband,  wife  and  three  children  under  working  age, 
with  an  income  over  $600  and  under  $1000.  As  can  readily  be 
understood  this  was  not  always  possible. 

At  an  early  stage  of  the  investigation,  it  was  seen  that  an  in- 
come of  $1000  was  ample  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  normal  family 
of  5.  Similarly,  it  was  shown  that  an  income  of  less  than  $600 
was  insufficient  to  keep  up  a  proper  standard  of  living  for  the 
same  social  unit.  The  facts  on  which  these  conclusions  were 
based  will  be  developed  later  in  the  report. 

Careful  instructions  were  given  to  the  enumerators  in  regard 
to  the  inquiries  to  be  made  on  the  questions  in  the  schedules. 
For  certain  elements  of  the  schedule,  such  as  rent,  number  of 
rooms,  income,  etc.,  it  was  possible  to  get  fairly  exact  replies.  In- 
quiries with  reference  to  cost  of  food,  cost  of  clothing,  and  other 
essentials  had,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  be  averaged.  Wherever 
possible,  the  individual  interviewed, — and  in  nearly  all  instances 
this  individual  was  the  mother  of  the  family, — was  requested  to 

269 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


keep  an  itemized  statement  of  her  disbursements  for  a  period  of 
one  week,  and  upon  the  statement  which  she  presented  the  esti- 
mate for  the  year's  disbursements  was  made.  Where  such  state- 
ment could  not  be  secured,  it  was  found  possible  in  a  number  of 
instances  to  make  use  of  the  expense  book  which  the  housewife 
kept  with  the  grocer,  butcher,  etc.  Where  both  of  these  methods 
failed,  it  was  necessary  for  the  investigator  to  carefully  go  over 
each  item  in  the  schedule  with  the  individual  interviewed  and  to 
endeavor  to  obtain  as  accurate  a  statement  as  possible.  Naturally 
there  are  inherent  errors  in  such  a  procedure.  In  many  instances 
there  was  a  tendency  to  exaggeration.  On  the  other  hand,  it  can 
safely  be  said  that  certain  items,  particularly  those  showing  sav- 
ings and  expenditures  for  liquor,  were  under-estimated.  While  the 
replies  for  this  reason  are  not  scientifically  exact,  they  neverthe- 
less indicate,  with  sufficient  accuracy,  the  general  character  and 
amounts  of  the  disbursements  made  by  the  families  who  were  in- 
terviewed, and  bring  out  enough  salient  features  upon  which  to 
base  a  judgment  as  to  the  cost  of  living  at  the  present  time. 

The  Committee,  however,  does  not  feel  that  the  investigation 
which  has  been  made  is  more  than  a  preliminary  one,  and  for  this 
reason  its  findings  are  but  the  interpretation  of  the  facts  presented 
in  the  schedules.  The  number  of  schedules  returned,  while 
larger  than  in  any  similar  investigation  made  heretofore,  is  still 
too  small  to  postulate  definite  conclusions.  So  many  factors  enter 
into  the  question  of  the  cost  of  living,  such  as  thrift,  economy, 
ability  of  the  housekeeper  to  utilize  most  advantageously  the 
purchases  made,  that  the  amount  on  which  one  family  may  live 
with  some  degree  of  comfort  and  decency  will  be  found  inade- 
quate for  another  family  which  is  improvident  and  shiftless. 

RESULTS 

The  Committee  has  received  a  total  of  728  schedules.  Of  these 
it  was  found  necessary  to  discard  139,  as  the  information  con- 
tained therein  was  either  inaccurate  or  incomplete.  Of  the  bal- 
ance of  the  schedules,  503  were  obtained  in  Greater  New  York,  86 
in  the  towns  and  cities  outside  of  Greater  New  York.  Of  those  for 
Greater  New  York  it  has  been  deemed  unnecessary  for  the  purposes 

270 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

of  this  inquiry  to  go  very  carefully  into  185  schedules  in  which 
the  income  was  below  $600  or  above  $1 100,  or  where  the  number 
in  the  family  deviated  very  largely  from  the  unit  of  inquiry;  in 
other  words,  where  the  number  in  the  family  was  below  4  or 
above  7.  The  schedules  showing  incomes  from  $300  to  $600  were 
at  once  eliminated,  as  the  analyses  of  the  most  important  items  of 
the  budget,  such  as  food,  rent  and  clothing,  indicated  that  the 
families  were  maintaining  an  exceptionally  low  standard  of  living, 
and  were  not  independent  of  outside  assistance. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  17  schedules  of  families  showing  incomes 
between  $500  and  $600  were  examined.  The  average  rental  of 
these  17  families  was  $141  per  annum.  Disbursements  for  food 
averaged  20  cents  per  man  per  day  or  2  cents  less  than  Dr. 
UnderhiU's  minimum.  The  family  spent  $68  per  annum  for  cloth- 
ing. The  disbursements  for  the  other  essentials  of  the  budget 
were  proportionately  so  low  that  a  more  detailed  study  of  the 
group  was  deemed  unnecessary.    Of  the  318  families  remaining, 

72  have  incomes  between  $600  and  $700, 
79  have  incomes  between  $700  and  $800, 

73  have  incomes  between  $800  and  $900, 
63  have  incomes  between  $900  and  $1000, 
31  have  incomes  between  $1000  and  $1  100. 

The  appended  tables  show  the  distribution  of  these  families 
according  to  nationality  and  residence: 


TABLE  I. 


Income. 

Nationality. 

Total. 

$600 

$700 

$800 

$900 

$1000 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

$699 

$799 

$899 

$999 

$1099 

67 

19 

13 

16 

8 

39 

9 

! 

24 

: 

I 

7 

5 

28 

1 1 

6 

8 

2 

1 

14 

4 

3 

3 

4 

57 

10 

14 

12 

9 

6 

32 

6 

9 

9 

7 

1 

57 

16 

14 

12 

9 

6 

Total  

318 

72 

79 

73 

63 

3i 

271 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  II. 


Income. 

Manhat- 
tan. 

Brooklyn. 

Bronx. 

Queens. 

Total. 

52 

15 

5 

0 

72 

$700  to  $799  

63 

14 

2 

0 

79 

58 

9 

5 

1 

73 

45 

10 

2 

6 

63 

25 

4 

1 

1 

3i 

Total  

243 

52 

i5 

8 

3i8 

THE  FAMILY  BUDGET 

For  the  immediate  purpose  of  this  report,  the  inquiry  has  been 
confined  to  224  schedules  of  families  ranging  in  income  between 
$600  and  $900,  for  reasons  that  will  appear  below.  The  occupa- 
tions of  the  wage-earners  are  shown  in  Tables  3-6  (pages  46-52) 
of  the  final  report.  The  average  incomes  and  disbursements  of 
these  three  groups  are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  III. 


Group  I. 

Group  11. 

Group  III. 

$600  to  $699 

$700  to  $799 

$800  to  $899 

Average 

Average 

Average 

Income. 

Income. 

Income. 

$650 

$748 

$846 

Rent  

$154 

$161 

$168 

11 

io 

16 

Fuel  and  light  

38 

37 

41 

6 

8 

7 

13 

18 

18 

2  79 

3i4 

34i 

11 

22 

18 

Clothing  

83 

99 

114 

Health  

14 

14 

22 

8 

9 

11 

3 

6 

7 

5 

5 

7 

25 

32 

41 

Total  

$650 

$735 

$811 

272 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Group  I. — $600  to  §700. 

This  group  included  72  families,  of  which  52  are  in  the  Bor- 
ough of  Manhattan,  15  in  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn,  and  5  in  the 
Borough  of  the  Bronx.  The  72  families  show  an  average  income 
of  $650,  and  an  average  disbursement  of  $650.  For  the  purpose 
of  this  report,  the  Committee  has  endeavored  to  interpret  these 
figures  in  connection  with  all  other  replies  presented  in  the  sched- 
ules. The  limitations  of  time  and  space  will  not  permit  of  the 
presentation  of  statistical  tables.  These  the  Committee  hopes 
will  be  published  at  length  in  book  form. 

The  income  of  these  72  families  is  derived  from  various  sources. 
In  many  instances  the  employment  of  the  father  is  irregular  and 
must  be  supplemented.  In  7  families  the  mother  adds  to  the 
income  and  in  3  families  children  help  in  the  family  support. 
Seventeen  families  keep  23  lodgers,  of  whom  a  few  take  meals  with 
the  family. 

The  question  naturally  arises, — "Do  these  72  families  show- 
ing incomes  varying  from  §600  to  §700  and  who  have  an  aver- 
age income  of  $650  maintain  a  standard  of  living  sufficient  to  pre- 
serve physical  and  mental  efficiency?"  The  Committee  is  of  the 
opinion  that  the  figures  speak  for  themselves.  Without  attempting 
at  great  length  to  show  the  facts  by  statistics,  it  appears  from  a 
careful  study  of  this  group  that  the  average  family  of  five  persons 
pays  $13  per  month  for  rent.  For  this  they  are  able  to  obtain,  in 
the  Borough  of  Manhattan,  from  2  to  3  rooms,  depending  upon  the 
section  in  which  they  live.  Rents  seem  to  be  highest  on  the  upper 
West  Side,  in  central  Manhattan,  and  on  the  lower  East  Side.  Oc- 
casionally on  the  upper  East  Side  and  in  other  sections  of  the  city, 
it  is  possible  to  find  cheaper  rentals  than  the  one  given.  Such  a 
family  has  no  bath  and  only  1  family  in  10  has  a  toilet  within  the 
apartment.  The  rooms  are  apt  to  be  low  and  comparatively  small, 
and  one  room  is  usually  dark;  i.  e.,  has  no  window  to  the  outer  air, 
or  no  window  at  all.  Kerosene  is  used  for  lighting,  and  coal  for 
cooking  and  heating.  Every  other  family  uses  wood  which  the 
father  brings  home  with  him  or  which  the  children  collect  on  the 
streets.  In  some  homes,  gas  is  used  for  cooking  in  summer. 
The  cost  of  fuel  and  light  averages  in  this  group,  §38  per  annum. 
18  273 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  furniture  equipment  of  such  a  family  is  in  most  instances 
meagre.  If  there  are  three  rooms,  the  so-called  parlor  is  a  com- 
bined parlor,  sitting-room  and  bed-room.  As  a  rule,  it  contains  a 
table,  a  bed  and  a  few  chairs.  Occasionally  a  rocking-chair  or  a 
sofa  is  found.  In  the  corner  there  is  a  sewing-machine;  on  the 
walls  a  few  cheap  pictures,  family  portraits  and  the  like.  Cheap 
ornaments  are  found  here  and  there.  In  some  few  instances  the 
floor  is  covered  with  a  cheap  carpet.  The  second  room,  which  is  a 
combination  dining-room  and  kitchen,  has  a  table  covered  with  oil- 
cloth, a  few  chairs,  a  stove,  and  kitchen  utensils  which  hang  on  the 
walls,  owing  to  the  lack  of  a  cupboard.  Frequently  an  ice-box  is 
found.  The  third  room,  which  is  a  bed-room,  contains  an  iron 
folding  bed,  chair  and  trunk.  Clothes  hang  on  the  wall;  seldom 
is  there  a  bureau.  The  washing  of  the  family  is  done  at  the  sink 
in  the  kitchen,  there  being  no  wash-stands  or  wash-bowls  in  the 
bed-rooms.  In  one  case  only  was  a  piano  found.  The  disburse- 
ments per  annum  for  furniture  average  $6,  for  which  the  housewife 
declares  she  can  purchase  only  the  necessary  things.  These  in- 
clude dishes,  table,  linens,  beds,  chairs,  kitchen  utensils,  and  sup- 
plies for  cleaning.  If  more  than  this  is  required,  for  example, 
mirrors,  sewing-machines,  etc.,  resort  must  be  made  to  instalment 
purchases. 

The  value  of  the  furniture  is  indicated  by  the  cost  of  moving, 
which  varies  from  $3  to  $5,  and  but  rarely  does  it  pay  to  have  the 
furniture  insured  against  fire.  Most  of  the  disbursements  for  in- 
surance, which  averages  §13  per  annum,  are  for  so-called  life  or 
burial  insurance. 

The  food  disbursement  for  such  a  family  approximates  $270  per 
annum,  for  five  individuals  or  3.3  units.  This  is  $82  per  annum 
per  unit  or  22J  cents  per  man  per  day.  For  breakfast  the  family 
has  rolls  and  coffee;  sometimes  bread  with  butter;  occasionally 
eggs  or  oatmeal.  The  nature  of  the  meal  varies  with  the  nationality 
of  the  family.  Some  families  are  satisfied  with  herring  or  a  piece  of 
sliced  salmon  for  breakfast.  The  father  or  wage-earner  is  usually 
not  home  for  lunch.  This,  however,  means  an  additional  expense 
to  the  family  of  $1 1  for  lunches  eaten  away  from  home.  The  other 
members  of  the  family  make  their  lunch  out  of  food  left  over  from 
the  preceding  evening, — for  example  cold  meat,  potatoes,  occasion- 

274 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

ally  coffee  or  tea;  or  else  are  satisfied  with  bread  and  milk,  crackers 
and  milk,  eggs,  bread  and  tea;  or  bread  and  onions.  Occasionally 
the  family  have  a  full  meal  (so-called)  at  mid-day,  but  in  this  case 
they  have  no  supper;  if  they  are  hungry  in  the  evening,  they  eat 
bread.  In  nearly  all  these  families  the  important  meal  of  the  day 
is  in  the  evening,  when  the  entire  family  is  present.  The  menu  con- 
sists of  meat,  potatoes,  occasionally  soup,  coffee  or  beer.  On  Sun- 
day the  family  allows  itself  greater  latitude  for  dinner;  a  roast  is 
served  and  cake  as  dessert  about  once  a  month.  Many  families, 
however,  make  no  difference  between  Sundays  and  other  days. 
The  above  menus  apply  largely  to  native  families.  Russian  and 
Austrian  Jewish  families  have  special  dinners  on  Friday  evenings 
or  on  Saturday,  using  fish  and  fowl.  The  Italian  lives  chiefly 
on  macaroni,  fish  or  meat,  lentils  and  beans.  Food  is  bought 
daily  in  all  these  families  in  small  quantities;  dry  food,  such  as 
potatoes,  flour,  tea,  coffee  and  sugar,  is  generally  bought  in  quan- 
tities to  last  a  week.  Chicken  and  fish  are  purchased  in  exceptional 
cases  only.  The  same  is  true  of  fresh  fruits.  There  is  little  variety 
in  the  food  used.  Guests  are  seldom  to  be  found  at  the  table;  in 
fact,  this  question  frequently  brought  forth  the  reply,  "We  are 
glad  to  have  enough  to  eat  for  ourselves."  Only  on  holidays  and 
on  special  celebrations  are  relatives  invited.  Twenty  per  cent,  of 
the  food  disbursements  is  for  bread  and  similar  forms  of  food; 
6.2  per  cent,  of  the  total  disbursement  for  food  is  for  liquor  used 
in  the  home. 

The  family  clothes  itself  at  a  cost  of  $84  per  annum.  Of  this 
amount  approximately  $28  is  disbursed  for  the  clothing  of  the 
father,  $18  for  the  clothing  of  the  mother,  and  $28  for  the  clothing 
of  the  three  children.  Ten  dollars  a  year  must  be  expended  for 
washing  materials,  laundry  supplies  and  for  repairs. 

The  question  whether  a  family  of  5  can  purchase  sufficient 
clothing  for  their  needs  on  $80  per  annum  is  difficult  to  answer. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  clothes  can  be  worn  and  are  worn  even 
when  they  become  exceedingly  shabby  and  torn.  A  partial  answer 
to  this  question  is  shown  by  the  schedules.  Of  the  72  families,  25 
admitted  receiving  gifts  of  clothing  from  relatives,  employers,  pri- 
vate individuals,  churches  and  charitable  organizations.  This 
happens  more  frequently  among  native-born  families  than  among 

275 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


foreign-born  families.  The  latter  apparently  make  greater  use  of 
the  second-hand  clothing  stores.  Under  all  circumstances,  the 
ability  to  get  along  on  $80  per  annum  assumes  a  large  amount  of 
thrift  and  economy  on  the  part  of  the  housewife,  and  the  skill 
constantly  to  repair  the  clothing  which  is  purchased.  If  more 
clothing  than  the  above  is  desired,  it  must  be  purchased  on  the 
instalment  plan,  or  by  cutting  down  the  other  important  items 
in  the  budget,  particularly  that  of  food. 

The  budget  permits  a  disbursement  of  $14  for  the  preservation  of 
the  health  of  the  family, — or  rather  sickness  requires  this  disburse- 
ment. The  money  expended  is  almost  wholly  paid  for  physicians 
and  medicines  in  cases  of  acute  and  chronic  illness.  Almost  none 
of  it  goes  for  care  of  the  teeth;  only  8  families  (1 1  per  cent.)  out 
of  the  72  reporting  the  use  of  the  dentist,  whom  they  pay  in  in- 
stalments. Twenty-nine  families  out  of  the  72  (40  per  cent.)  make 
use  of  free  dispensaries.  Twelve  families  report  using  free  hos- 
pitals. Where  illness  becomes  chronic  and  covers  a  long  period  of 
time  the  family  almost  invariably  runs  into  debt. 

Eight  dollars  is  spent  annually  by  this  family  for  taxes  and  con- 
tributions. It  can  safely  be  said  that  this  average  has  largely  been 
raised  by  the  Catholic  families,  whose  contributions  to  churches 
are  far  in  excess  of  those  of  any  other  religious  denomination. 
Either  the  father  or  the  mother  belongs  to  a  political  organization, 
to  a  labor  union,  or  to  some  religious  body. 

Depending  upon  the  location  in  which  the  family  lives,  the 
amount  spent  for  car-fare  varies.  Where  the  car-fare  item  is  low, 
and  the  father  lives  near  his  place  of  work,  it  frequently  happens 
that  the  saving  in  car-fare  is  used  for  rental.  Practically  all  of  the 
car-fare  is  used  by  the  wage-earner  in  going  to  and  from  his  place 
of  work.  Very  little  remains  for  recreation,  or  for  excursions  to 
the  country.  The  $3  that  the  family  may  spend  for  recreation 
permits  of  almost  no  diversion.  Occasionally  in  the  summer-time 
the  family  goes  to  Coney  Island,  to  Fort  George,  to  the  beaches 
around  the  city,  or  listens  to  the  gramophone  on  the  Bowery,  14th 
Street,  and  other  places  where  this  form  of  amusement  is  to  be 
found.  Two  families  out  of  the  72  visited  the  theatre;  many  of 
the  families  spend  part  of  their  Sundays  in  the  parks. 

For  educational  purposes  the  family  spends  $5  per  annum, 

276 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

most  of  which  is  used  for  the  daily  newspaper.  The  children 
spend  for  school  supplies  50  cents  per  annum,  and  postage  and 
stationery  may  run  up  to  25  or  50  cents  a  year.  There  is  practi- 
cally no  expenditure  for  books.  Seventeen  families  report  the 
use  of  public  libraries. 

This  leaves  a  total  of  $25  per  annum  for  miscellaneous  expen- 
ditures, including  moving,  payment  of  debts,  etc.  Of  this,  the 
larger  amount  is  spent  for  personal  expenses  of  the  father,  such 
as  tobacco,  liquor,  barber  and  spending  money.  Expenditures  for 
funerals  are  given  in  comparatively  few  instances,  the  assumption 
being  that  insurance  money  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

To  summarize,  a  family  having  an  income  of  $650  per  annum 
spends  24  per  cent,  of  its  income  for  rent,  45  per  cent,  for  food,  or 
85  per  cent,  of  its  income  for  four  items,  food,  rent,  clothing,  fuel 
and  light.  Only  2.5  per  cent,  is  spent  for  education,  recreation,  and 
dues  to  societies;  the  other  12.5  per  cent,  is  for  health,  insurance, 
furniture,  car-fare,  meals  away  from  home,  and  miscellaneous. 
The  family  is  unable  to  make  any  provision  against  accident  or  to 
lay  by  anything  for  a  rainy  day.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  schedules 
show  that  the  families  are  unable  to  live  within  this  income  under 
the  conditions  shown  above.  Twenty  of  the  72  families  admit 
being  in  debt,  the  money  being  borrowed  for  food  and  rent.  Not 
rarely  do  they  visit  the  pawnshop.  Ten  of  these  families  claim  to 
have  small  savings  varying  from  $5  to  $25  per  annum.  A  study 
of  these  10  families,  however,  shows  that  the  savings  are  due  to 
exceptionally  favorable  conditions.  Most  of  them  have  less  than 
5  persons  in  the  family.  The  children  are  very  young  and 
hence  consume  less  food  and  require  less  clothing;  the  conditions 
of  health  are  better  than  in  the  average  family,  and  the  income 
of  the  father  is  above  the  average  of  $650.  In  addition,  in  most 
instances,  the  father  has  steady  work  and  an  income  which  lasts 
throughout  the  year.  These  families  likewise  show  a  high  de- 
gree of  thrift  and  economy.  The  amount  spent  for  food  and  cloth- 
ing is  comparatively  low,  and  they  receive  gifts  of  various  kinds. 
Rentals,  likewise,  are  lower  than  the  average,  and  all  in  all  these 
families  may  be  considered  as  variations  rather  than  as  normal 
types. 

The  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  an  income  between  $600 

277 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


and  $700  per  annum  is  insufficient  for  a  family  of  5  to  maintain  a 
proper  standard  of  living  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan.  Leaving 
aside  the  exceptions,  it  is  apparent  that  on  an  income  of  $600  to 
$700  many  families  in  Manhattan  have  a  fierce  struggle  for  ex- 
istence. The  maximum  of  food  purchases  approximates  the  mini- 
mum set  up  by  authorities  on  this  subject.  The  narrowest  margin 
is  allowed  for  other  essentials.  No  provision  can  be  made  for 
accident  or  emergency.  If  either  of  these  occur,  the  family  runs 
into  debt.  Were  it  not  for  the  charity  of  friends,  relatives,  em- 
ployers or  philanthropic  organizations,  the  expenditure  of  the 
family  would  be,  and  frequently  is,  larger  than  the  income. 

Such  a  family  literally  lives  a  hand-to-mouth  existence,  with 
neither  opportunity  nor  means  for  enjoyment  or  recreation.  1 1  can 
make  no  provision  for  repairs  to  equipment.  The  health  of  its 
members  cannot  be  safeguarded  from  its  own  resources.  The 
housing  accommodations  barely  prevent  over-crowding.  //  requires 
no  citation  oj  elaborate  statistics  to  bring  convincing  proof  that  $600  to 
$700  is  wholly  inadequate  to  maintain  a  proper  standard  oj  living, 
and  no  self-respecting  family  should  be  asked  or  expected  to  live  on 
such  an  income. 

Group  II. — $700  to  $800. 
Of  primary  interest  in  this  group  is  the  fact  that  the  79  families 
in  the  group,  having  5  to  the  family,  manage  to  live  within  their 
incomes — the  disbursement  being  practically  the  same  as  the  in- 
come. A  difference  of  $85  in  the  average  expenditures  of  this  and 
the  preceding  group  is  readily  accounted  for, — $45  more  being 
spent  in  the  second  group  for  food  and  $16  more  for  clothing,  the 
two  together  making  over  70  per  cent,  of  the  additional  disburse- 
ment. The  balance  of  $24  is  fairly  distributed  among  the  other 
items  of  the  budget.  There  is  a  difference  of  $2  per  annum  for 
health  and  an  additional  disbursement  of  $2  per  annum  for  furni- 
ture, $1  for  taxes,  $3  for  recreation,  $7  for  miscellaneous  expendi- 
tures, $7  for  housing  and  $11  for  meals  taken  away  from  home. 
It  is  of  particular  interest  to  note  that  there  is  practically  no  in- 
crease in  the  expenditure  for  rent.  The  housing  conditions  remain 
the  same, — if  anything,  if  the  housing  conditions  may  be  assumed 
to  have  been  bad  in  the  preceding  group,  they  are  somewhat  accen- 

278 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


tuated  in  this  group  by  the  fact  that  a  larger  number  of  the  families, 
to  obtain  the  above  income,  keep  lodgers  and  boarders.  In  the 
first  group,  24  per  cent,  of  the  families  increased  their  income 
through  this  means;  in  the  present  group  26  families  out  of  the 
79,  or  33  per  cent.,  keep  lodgers  or  boarders,  being  1  family  out 
of  every  3.  In  the  food  budget,  the  $45  additional  permits 
a  larger  amount  of  animal  food  and  a  better  quality  of  food,  the 
per  capita  per  day  having  risen  to  25  cents  or  9  per  cent.  There 
is  a  decrease  in  the  number  of  families  who  receive  free  gifts  of 
clothing,  35  per  cent,  in  the  first  group  receiving  gifts  from  various 
sources  and  27  per  cent,  in  the  present  group.  There  is  similarly 
a  reduction  from  40  per  cent,  to  38  per  cent,  in  the  number  of 
families  who  receive  free  dispensary  treatment.  Only  8  families 
report  using  free  hospitals.  Only  35  per  cent,  use  free  wood. 
The  family  spends  proportionately  more  per  annum  for  medical 
services.  More  families  make  use  of  dentists  in  this  group.  All 
in  all  there  is  a  tendency  toward  improvement  in  condition,  and 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  housing  conditions  have  not  improved, 
it  might  be  assumed  that  the  family  is  beginning  to  reach  the  point 
where  a  fairly  decent  standard  of  living  is  being  maintained. 

The  Committee  believes  that  with  an  income  of  between  $700  and 
$800  a  family  can  barely  support  itself,  provided  that  it  is  subject 
to  no  extraordinary  expenditures  by  reason  of  sickness,  death  or  other 
untoward  circumstances.  Such  a  family  can  live  without  charitable 
assistance  through  exceptional  management  and  in  the  absence  of 
emergencies. 

Group  III.— $800  to  $900. 
This  group  at  once  shows  a  marked  variation  from  the  preced- 
ing groups,  particularly  from  the  first  group.  Not  only  is  the 
family  apparently  able  to  live  on  its  income,  but  it  can  save  on  its 
income.  The  average  income  in  the  group  being  $846  and  the  aver- 
age disbursement  $811.  It  is  true  that  12  families  in  this  group 
claim  to  be  in  debt.  The  indebtedness,  however,  is  lower  than  in 
the  preceding  groups,  and  the  causes  of  indebtedness  are  personal 
to  the  families  and  not  characteristic  of  the  group.  Twenty-one 
families  actually  show  savings  in  the  schedules, — these  savings  run- 
ning from  $50  to  $100.    Even  in  those  schedules  where  no  actual 

279 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


savings  are  shown,  the  schedules  indicate  that  the  families  have  not 
used  their  entire  incomes.  Only  in  cases  of  chronic  illness  have 
the  families  spent  their  entire  income  and  shown  indebtedness. 
In  one  instance,  for  example,  the  family  shows  a  disbursement 
of  over  $200  for  physicians  and  medicines.  This,  however,  is 
exceptional.  There  is  an  increase  in  disbursements  over  the 
previous  group  of  $76  per  annum,  of  which  50  per  cent,  goes 
for  food  and  clothing;  10  per  cent,  for  rent;  15  per  cent,  for 
miscellaneous,  and  25  per  cent,  for  other  items.  In  practically 
the  same  proportion  there  is  an  increase  in  disbursements  for  rent, 
the  increase  averaging  60  cents  per  month. 

The  average,  however,  does  not  tell  the  full  story,  either  for  this 
or  for  the  preceding  groups.  Of  families  paying  §120  or  less 
per  annum  ($10  per  month),  there  are: 

In  $6qo  to  $700  group.  .  .  14  families,  or  19  per  cent. 
In  $700  to  $800  group.  . .  17  families,  or  21  per  cent. 
In  $800  to  $900  group. .  .  8  families,  or  1 1  per  cent. 

Of  families  paying  $228  or  over  per  annum  there  are: 

In  $600  to  $700  group. . .  1  family,  or  1.4  per  cent. 
In  $700  to  $800  group. . .  7  families  or  9  per  cent. 
In  $800  to  $900  group.  . .  10  families  or  14  per  cent. 

Of  families  paying  $168  or  over  per  annum  (for  which  4  rooms 
can  usually  be  obtained)  there  are: 

In  $600  to  $700  group.  .  .21  families,  or  29  per  cent. 
In  $700  to  $800  group. .  .33  families,  or  42  per  cent. 
In  $800  to  $900  group. .  .37  families,  or  51  per  cent. 

There  are  more  baths,  and  particularly  more  toilets,  in  the  apart- 
ments. The  rooms  are  larger  and  have  more  light.  The  families 
in  this  group  keep  a  proportionately  larger  number  of  lodgers  than 
in  the  other  group.  Of  73  families,  25,  or  34  per  cent.,  keep  49 
lodgers.  In  all  these  groups,  lodgers  are  necessarily  kept  to  meet 
additional  expenditures.  The  keeping  of  lodgers  is  not  primarily 
a  question  of  standard  of  living,  but  rather  one  of  wages.  If 
these  families  had  sufficient  income  from  their  wage-earners  so  as 
not  to  be  compelled  to  take  in  lodgers,  the  housing  accommodations 
which  could  be  obtained  for  the  rentals  paid  by  this  group  would 

280 


REPORT  OF  SPECIAL  COMMITTEE  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


be  sufficiently  ample  and  hygienic  for  a  family  of  normal  size. 
The  amount  that  is  now  disbursed  for  food  (27  cents  per  day) 
and  for  clothing  appears  to  be  adequate.  All  along  the  line  there 
is  the  opportunity  for  larger  disbursements,  and  in  the  miscellane- 
ous group  considerable  latitude  is  allowed,  the  average  being  $41, 
to  which  can  be  added  the  $35  surplus  in  case  of  necessity.  It  may 
be  mentioned  in  this  connection  that  the  amount  of  gifts  in  cloth- 
ing, free  dispensaries,  etc.,  is  materially  decreased.  More  provision 
is  made  for  health  and  for  replenishing  the  furniture  equipment. 
Of  most  importance,  however,  is  the  statement  made  above  that 
there  is  an  indication  of  actual  saving  by  the  families  here  discussed. 
These  families  seem  to  be  able  to  provide  themselves  with  the  food 
which  they  require,  with  the  clothing  which  they  require,  and  to 
live  under  conditions  which  they  consider  fairly  decent.  They 
have  opportunities  for  recreation  and  for  amusement  which  are 
fairly  normal,  and  apparently  these  families  are  typical  of  hundreds, 
if  not  thousands,  of  wage-earners  and  small  tradesmen  of  the 
middle  class  who  are  self-respecting  and  self-supporting.  In 
view  of  all  these  facts,  the  Committee  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is 
fairly  conservative  in  its  estimate  that  $825  is  sufficient  for  the  aver- 
age family  of  5  individuals,  comprising  the  father,  mother  and 
3  children  under  14  years  of  age  to  maintain  a  fairly  proper 
standard  of  living  in  the  Borough  of  Manhattan.  The  extent  to 
which  this  amount  would  be  changed  in  the  other  boroughs'  of 
Greater  New  York  would  be  measured  largely  by  the  item  of  rent, 
and  not  by  the  other  items  in  the  budget.  This  item  may  vary 
from  $15  to  $30  per  annum  in  the  Borough  of  Brooklyn;  probably 
a  similar  amount  in  the  Borough  of  the  Bronx.  In  the  Borough 
of  Queens,  from  the  very  few  schedules  which  have  been  obtained, 
the  Committee,  while  it  does  not  draw  any  conclusions,  is  of  the 
impression  that  the  rent  item  would  be  even  lower. 


NATIONALITIES 

A  word  should  be  said  on  the  subject  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
nationalities  of  the  families  investigated.  The  schedules  show  that 
in  native  and  Irish  families  the  greater  the  income,  the  greater  the 
disbursements  for  so-called  necessities.    In  other  foreign-born  fam- 

281 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


ilies,  particularly  Italian,  Austrian  and  Russian,  the  tendency 
is  to  save  even  if  a  lower  standard  must  be  maintained,  the  ratio  of 
disbursements  not  keeping  pace  with  the  increase  of  income.  It  is 
among  the  foreign-born  that  one  finds  most  of  the  lodgers  and 
boarders,  and  where  most  of  the  working  mothers  and  children  are 
to  be  found;  all  this,  of  course,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  in- 
come and  corresponding  savings. 

In  conclusion  it  should  be  repeated  that  the  inferences  drawn 
are  based  on  the  facts  as  presented  in  the  schedules.  The  Com- 
mittee believes  that  they  have  a  distinct  practical  and  social 
value  and  they  are  submitted  to  the  Conference  in  this  belief. 


282 


APPENDIX  III 


The  Schedule 

Instructions  to  Investigators 
The  object  of  the  Committee,  in  this  investigation,  is  to  find  out 
both  the  cost  and  the  elements  of  a  normal  standard  of  living. 
Its  success  depends  absolutely  upon  the  patience,  tact  and  ac- 
curacy of  those  who  gather  the  information  from  families  of  their 
acquaintance. 

1.  The  families  selected  should  be  those  with  which  the  visitor 
has  already  established  friendly  relations.  The  schedule  is  to  be 
filled  out  by  the  visitor,  not  by  the  members  of  the  family.  Several 
visits  may  be  necessary  to  secure  all  the  information  desired. 

2.  Each  family  should  be  a  representative  family:  (a)  self- 
supporting;  (b)  comprising  father,  mother,  2  to  5  children 
under  16,  and  preferably  no  other  members;  (c)  of  average 
earning  power  and  economy.  Where  practicable,  the  selection  of 
two  or  more  families  in  the  same  occupation  will  facilitate  com- 
parisons. 

3.  The  answers  to  the  questions  should  be  filled  out  as  exactly 
and  fully  as  possible.  It  is  essential  to  know,  not  only  the  cost 
of  the  articles  purchased,  but  also  what  the  family  gets  for  what 
it  pays — what  things,  how  many,  how  good.  Hence  the  questions 
are  drawn  out  in  detail,  not  in  order  to  increase  labor,  but  to 
save  it. 

4.  Families  should  be  assured  that  the  information  will  be  re- 
garded as  confidential,  and  informed  of  the  purpose  for  which 
it  is  sought.  The  names  of  the  families  are  not  to  appear  on  the 
schedules. 

5.  The  details  of  expenditure,  especially  for  food  and  clothing, 
should  be  derived  from  accounts  kept  by  the  housekeeper  already, 
or  which  she  may  be  induced  to  keep  for  a  few  weeks  for  the  pur- 
poses of  this  investigation.    Where  this  proves  impracticable,  it 

283 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


may  be  necessary  to  fall  back  on  estimates  as  to  details  and 
totals,  obtained  by  careful  inquiry.  The  first  method  is  greatly 
to  be  preferred,  and  will  have  an  added  value  if  the  original  ac- 
counts can  be  filed  with  the  schedule.  Where  the  second  method 
is  used,  the  process  by  which  the  estimates  were  reached  should 
be  stated  on  the  schedule. 

6.  Duplications  should  be  avoided.  An  examination  of  the 
schedule  as  a  whole  will  show  the  place  designed  for  each  item. 
Lunches  and  car-fares,  for  example,  are  specified  separately, 
and  should  not  be  included  under  spending-money. 

The  secretary  will  be  pleased  to  give  additional  explanations 
in  answer  to  inquiries.  It  is  requested  that  the  accompanying 
schedule  be  returned  within  thirty  days  of  the  time  when  it  is 
received. 

When  completed,  this  schedule  should  be  returned  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Special  Committee  on  the  Standard  of  Living  appointed 
by  the  New  York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction, 
Robert  C.  Chapin,  105  East  22d  Street,  New  York  City. 


284 


CONFIDENTIAL 


1 


FAMILY  REPORT  ON  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


NCwYonn  Cmrt  Borough  

RcsioEnce.  op  family.  No.  


ScHtoute.  No  , 

 Street 


Ri PORTED  BY 


OF. 


C      o.  AoottEss  ) 


17 ATA    GnrHENEO  BBTWCBN  %,     AMO  ....... 

[.  BiPTHPt.fi.cE.  op  father  ?  *  » .  «   .  »  .  .*  "Of  his  parents  ? 

2.  BizrtiPLACC  Or  Pf  other  V  .  .  ;  OP  *£*  FAREhts  ?. 


3  ,(f  FonciSN-soRn,  years  spent  //v  the  U.S.  by  fanner  ?  By  mother  ?  .  , 

4-.  COMPOSITION,  OCCUPATION  and  EARNINGS  of  the  FAMILY 


MEMBERS 

A5E 

OCCUPATION 

HOURS. 

DAYS 

EAR  NINOS 

ten.  Ye*>R 

weekly 

MAXIMUM 

ActuAi-TerTikL 

pfR  Year 

FATHfR 

* 

1 

MOTHER 

hubs?  ma 

Z«V  CHILD 

3rq  Qtiun  _ 

Sth.chuq 

! 

Total  income  fpoi-i  wages  pop.  the  year 


5-  GTHtRSU'lrtG 

AMOUNT  PAID 

we™  Ffcwiv, 

KfilE 

FEMALE 

weekly 

Yearly 

RtLMlVt*  (SPEClfY 
RELATIONS  KIP) 

i 

 1 

.  Lfif/GERS 

_  BCARDcp* 

-TAglE  3P,^P,c;qs 

INCOME.  FROM  LOPGiPS,  60ARDERS  ETC 


FOR  "TEAK 


INCOME  Fnen  OTHER  SPUPCESfffK  TE*P 
C  SPEOlEY  SOURCES  ) 


tPICOHt  WiW  ILL  SOURCES  FORTMl  YEA* 


N.B.  WEtE   **0*r  SfACC    Is     «EEDED  USE    Bl*hh   f>a  G  £  $ 

285 


DESCRIPTION  m  FAMILY 

(CHAAACT  ERiZE  FATHER,  MOTHER  AND  CHILDREN  WITH  FttFCRENCe  TO  PHYSICAL,  MENr*K 
AND  MORAL   TRAITS-  Note  any  inherited  defects,  any  imarme d  ability} 

6.  PHYSICAL  CONDJTiON 

FATHER   -  -    _ 

flOTHER.  .    .  .  .  _ 

CHILDREN  .. 


7.  MENTAL  CONDITIONAL  CAPACITY 

FATHER  

MOTHER   ,  ;  

CHILDREN  „  .  .  

8.  Are  children  normal  in  pnys  iq.ue,  mind  aho  habits  ?  . .  .  ...  . .  ...„...._..__ 


Oj  ///?  9  ITS   OF  FATHER,    SO    FAR   AS    ASCERTAINABLE  .  .....   ..  . 

JC.  Capacity  of  mother  as  expressed  jsy  condition  of  roons,  furnishings,  clothing, 

USE   OF   FOOD    SUPPLIES^    ANO  GENERAL    APPEARANCE    OF  HOME   ...... 


|f,  /lY  CASE  OF  RETRENcHMEHTt  WHAT  EXPENDITURES  ARE  CURTAILED  OR  ELifUHATED 
12.  (WHAT  ARTICLES,  IF  ANY,   ARE   BOUGHT  ON  THE    INSTALMENT-PLAN?...    .  .  . 

13.1/v/VAr  if  anYj  with  trading-stamps?  ,  


\°r.  Are  house hclo  goods  ever  mortgaged?  . 

as  personal  property  s/£r    pawned  ?.  - 

/s  monet  ever  sorrowed  on  personal  creolt  ®  from  frlenos  .  

®  from  money  lenders?^   _  

15  For  what  purpose  is  the  money  borrowed  in  any  of  tnese  ways  ussd?  . 


286 


Housing 

t     TYPE  OF  HOUSE.  -  (TENEMENT,  DETACHED  DWELLING  ETtL)  

2-  /S  DWELLING  RENTED  OR  OWNED  ?  


3.  IE  RESTED,  ANNUAL  RENT  PAIO  ?  $   _  m  

4  A-  /F  OWNED;  EST/MATEO   VALUE  ?  $  ^  

3  ANNUAL  BENT  OF  Li  HE  HOUSES  NEA  R  ?  #  

C./S  JT    MORTGAGED?  fOR  NOW  MUCH?  £   

o  annual    interest  paid  f  

5.  /f  fXENTE  d;  does  rent  include  water?  light?. 

Cain  it  or    service.  ?  


6.    15    IT    A    CORKER- SO ILDlKQ  ?  .  „  A 


AR  TENEMENT 


7.  UN  .WHICH  FLOOR-?__ 

8.  Size  of  y~a  r  d  ?  

9.  HOW   IS   YARD  USED?. 


\o.wh/>t  use    DOES  family  make  OF  ROOF?. 


13A.  IS    THERE   a  toile  t  ?  ,  

6.  /S./T  LOCATED    iN  APARTMENTi    IH  HAL.L,   OR  in  YARD?  

fi Oyv  MAN  Y    STORE-  CLOSETS  ?  

IS.  HOW  ARE  ROOMS  HEATED  ?  HOW  LIGHTED  A  T  HI  SHT  ? 

J 6.  HOW    IS    IA/ATZR     OBTAINED?.  .  .  

11   WHAT  FACIL  IT  IES    FOA  WASHING     AND   DRYING      CLOTHES*?  -_. 


18.    ST^T£     OF    REPAIR    OF  WOODWORK     AND     WALLS  ?_ 


10  where  is   coal  stored? 


287 


4 


lO.  *  DESIGNATION  cf,  ROOMS 

sne  in  pee.  r 

N  U  PI  fj  £  R 
OF 

W  I  N  OOWS 

DlR£CT  ACCESS 

To  OU  T  3  <  Ot    A  1  f\ 

(  *rE^  on  No) 

WIDTH 

U£N  OTH 

HEIGHT 

I 

Q 

-jbJ  .  

3 

4 

5 

(? 

7                            .    . 

*  f/AHCS  USED  BY  FAMILY 

2IA.  7//Y£    /3/VO  DISTANCE    FROM    HOUSE     TO   PL  A  C  C    WHERE     FA  TH  ER  REPORTS  FOR  vYORfS  ?  


8-  7<Mt   AND    DISTANCE    TO.  PLACE    WHERE  ANY  OTHER     WORKING  MEMBER  REPORTS?. 


C.TfMC  MND  DISTANCE.     TO   SCHOOL  '  ATTEN  OCO   6  Y  CH  fLDREH  ?_ 
11.  ARE  R-COKS   USEO  FOR  OTHER   THAN  DWELLING    PURPOSES  *, 
fF  SO,  FOR  WHAT  PURPOSES?  


2/3.  HOW  LONG  HAS  FAMILY   BEEN  IN  PRESENT  OWELLINQ  ?. 

W./tAS  RENT  BC£H   ZiVCfteASED  WiTHiN    T*VO  YEARS?  

HOW    MUCH    fHCR£-AS£   ?  .  


ARTICLES 

bought  ev 

TDNo*  BUSHtl? 

FRlCE 

PER  UNIT 

YEARLY 

USED 

TOTAL  PAID 

COAL 

a. 

* 

SOKE 

.  WOOD 

C Aft  PIES 

KEROSENE 

WATCHES 

SIS 

Total  nirtNonant  re*  ran  *no  Lismt  ft*  YtA* 

mi  ano  light 

2..WHAT  FUEL.  IF  AHYf   IS  GATHERED  FR££  OF  COST'?, 


3  /5  CAS  USED  FOR  COOH'HG  ?  .   _ 

°(JS   GAS  USED    FOff  LIGHTING-  ?  .  _  .  -  ....... 

SNunisER  of  eunNEfts?.  ...Ho<n  many  usually 

SURNED     ALL    THE   EVEN  IN  3  ?.  ........ 

6.  As   A  SLOT-METCR  USED  

l.ftHERE    IS   COAL  SOUGHT?    


288 


FOOD 


ARTICLES 

VMEEKU 

YEARLY  AnocNT 

REMAPS 

PAI  P 

4 

LoAV£$  OF  6R£AO 

Polls 

Pies 

C*  ACKER 

OTHER  GoqQS 

FLOUR 

CEREALS 

Beef 

FRESH 

SALT 

CfiNNZP 

PORK 

FRESH 

SALT 

HAM  BACON  etc 

SAJSAGEl 

READY  COOKEb  MEATS 

JWTTON,  L  fitl 5  I'EA L  etc. 

POULTRY 

FISH 

FRESH 

CANNED 

SALT,  OR  JED 

OYSTERS,  CLAMS  LORSTFRS 

LAELD 

OLEOMARGARINE. 

Butter 

Cheese 

*9  289 


S 


ARTICLES 

WEEKLY 

YEARLY  AM'T 
PA  1  D 

REMARKS 

QUANTITY 

PRICE 

Am't  Paid 

£6(55 

MILK 

LCOSE  tftLK  Qrs. 

QOTTt.es 

CONDENSED }  CANS 

Do.  Loose, 

3t/TTERMJ  LK 

Potatoes  lb.  ©t  6ushcl 

TURNIPS 

Onions 

CARROTS 

\ 



f/?£SH  VEGETABLES 

PRIED  BEANS 

00.  TEAS 

CANNED  GOODS 

VEGETABLES 

FRUITS 

JAMS,  JELLIES  ETC. 

FRUITS 

FRESH 

DRIED 

NUTS- 

TEA 

COFFE 

Cocoa 

 1  

 j  , 

SUGAR 

i 
l 

MOL  ASSES,  S  YRU  P 

 j  

\ 
\ 

i 

!  1 

290 


7 


ARTICLES 

WEEKLY 

Yearly  amt. 

PAID 

REMARKS 

QUANTITY 

PRICE 

amt  Paid 

LIQUORS  (usee  at  table! 

RTF* 

ALE 

Wine 

WH/SKCY 

GIN 

cthcr  p/sniLCcr  Lrauoxs 

pfCKLES 

SPI  CCS 

JCE    L3S.    pS£t>  yvse.KS 



l/VAT ER.  ^/r/vor  PA'Oi3YCAM>iof!D 

MCAL5  AWAY  FROM  HOME 

WHAT  MEALS 

NUM8S  R 

per* 

WEEK 

Pf?OVlD£DfftoM  HOUSE 
(\£5o«  Ho) 

BOUGHT  OUTSIDE 

COST  PER  WeEK 

COST  PERYEAR 

PATHER 

$ 

MOTHER 

CHILDREN  AT  VJORH 

CHILDREN  AT  SCHOOL 

Total  cost  or  MEALS  &  OUGHT  AWAX  FfiOM  HOME, 

total  finnua  l  expenditure  fok  fooo  $  ,  

/s  fooo   f"*ovideo  whole  some,   _    sufficient  ? 

"State  any  evidence  of  inadequacy  in  kind  or  amount  


/*  HOW  SMALL   QUANTITIES  AND  HOW  FREQUENTLY    /S  FOOO   BOUGHT  ?  . 


291 


8 

4   AVHCnC  ARC  fOOD-S'JPPL>t5  PoRC "A3  C D  °(oNt>EAUItC  )  A  T  CRO  CE  R  s'  A  NO  O  j7C  H  ERs' 5  H O  PSJ  flARHETS, 

DELICATESSEN-  STORES^  OF  S  TR£  £T  •  VENDERS.  .  ,  ,  „    

5.  A*E  PREPARED   BREAKFAST-  FOODS  uSEO  ?   _..  HOW  'MUCH  ?  _     

WHAT  FACILITIES  FOR  MEEPlNG   PROVISIONS    AND  COOKED  FOOD?    

7 A-  lYHA T  IS  ORDINARILY    SERVED  FOR  BREAKFAST?  


P.     FOR   THE   FVOoiV  MEAL?. 


C-    FOR  THE  EVES 'IN O    MEAL  f. 


p.  f or  Sundays  dinner?. 


8.    AT  WHAT  MEALS   DOES  THE  FAMILY  SlTDOvVtM  TOGETHER?  


9.  0OW  FREQUENTLY   ARE  GUESTS  PRESENT  AT  MEALS?. 


INSURANCE* 


FOR  INSORANCEof 

KIND  of  INSURANCE. 

AMOUNT  CARfVeO 

AMO  urJT  PAIO 

Pea  NCEK 

FATHER 

i 

MOTHER 

/«,  C'AILO 

2-n  CHILD 

3r«  child 

*rr»  CHILD 

5th.  CHILD 

SAVINGS 

WH/CH  MtMBERS  Of  THE  FAMILY  HAVE  A  SAVINGS  BANS 
AC&Y.  ?    


WHATtNAS  AODC0  TO  IT  DURING  YEAR'? 
yiM*r*A3  Off  AWN  fftoM  IT  OURlNO  YEAR  ? 


tot  ac  for  insurance  cf  pcrsohs 

,/s  furniture  insures?.*...   "\ 

ANnoalV 

FOR  HOW  MUCH  ?f>   PBCfllOMj 


IS  HOUSE  INSURED?  -> 

ANNUAL 

f  o«?  WOkV  c»i/e//  ?  4  _  ..  PREMIUM 


TO  TAX.  FOR  INiU*ANC4  •*  P£RSO«5  AHO  PR»P£.RTY 


292 


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CLOTHING 


EZPfNOiTU  Rt~S  FOR  THE.  YCAR  FOR: 

7  NUMMARY 

5    MATERIALS    POR    HOME-MUDE  GARMENTS 

£f.PENO  1  TURE5  FOR  CLOTHING 

MAreR/ALS  PoR  MEND/NO  CLOTHES 

F at hz'' s  Clothing 

LABOR    FOR  MAKING    AND  MENDING 

Hoys  Clothing 

Total    fok.   making   a.so  mending 

Motmcr^s  Clothe  no 

P}  WASHING  MATEK-tAiS   fS*>*K  ST*f>CH  rrc.) 

GIRLS'  C±q TNi" <i 

LABOR    PGR    WASH  /TV  G 

FOR    MAKING  A  NO  MINDING 

Fen                   SENT  TO  THE  L  AUHPRY 

FOR    WASHING  A  HO  LAl/NORY 

Total  for  washing  and  laundry 

1 

Total 

8,  1/VHfiT  GARMENTS  FOR  MEMBERS  OF  THE  FAMILY  ARE  MAOC    IN  THE   HOME.  ? 


9.  IV  NAT.  GARMENTS   ARE   RE-MADE    AN0  MENDED  ?  ....  ...  -  -  -  ..  -  - 

10.  tone  Re  is  clothing  bought  ?..-...•......--..        .        .  ... 

11.  WHAT  ARTICLES „lF  ANY,  ARE    BOUGHT  AT  SECOND  •  HAN  0?  .  .  .  _  ^      •  _  _  .  _ 

\t\-.To  .WHAT  EXTENT    ARE   GIFTS   OP  CLOTHING    RECEIVED?  .  .  „•__..«.  . 

J  3.  To  WHAT  EXTENT   ARE  SUCH  CIFTS  MADS  ?  .  .  «.  .  —  r  -  -   - 

\^G*\-gRAL  APREAAANtE  OT  Off  CCS  .OR  MEMBERS   OR    THE     FAMILY .*  .  


HEALTH 


EXPENDITURES   FOR  THE  YEAR 

Physician 

FOR: 

MKT  e»OT 

K&PICINES  P*.eSQ*fPGP>  BY  .PHTStGfM 

* 

1*0. 

i 

DRNTIST 

Other  medicines 

Oculist 

Hospital,  charges 

NliR^F 

DISPENSARY    CHAR  SP  K 

Surgical  appliances 

Spectacles,  eye-  glasscs 

4 

1.  Total   em^enoitore  on  accouht  of  health  fop  the  y/a* 
2.  What  ca^es  of  serious   illness  or  accident  have  occured  ch'**  the 


^WHAT  PRCS    AlfOrtAi.     ATTENDANCE      HAS    GEEK    l*CC  E  t  V  E  Q  ? 


295 


iZ 

FUF?NlTUR£  and  FURHISHING5 


BKPEHOtTURES   FOR  THE.  YEAR  FOR: 
FLOOR  -  COVF0M6S 

AMT  fkVO 

Pictures  curtains  ort\n*i«NTS 

f 

Chairs,  tables 

PlA«LOt  OTHER  MUSICAL  1 HS  TR  JH'Tc 

Other  wooden  furhiturz. 

GFDS  BED.~>tsta  nen-LiHFK 

Dishes  and  table-ware 

Kitchen  utehsilS 

Ta  GLE~  Ll  NCN ,  TpvVCLS 

Sroress  rs.fr/ocrator 

StfPPUPS  FOR  SWEEP1N6  A"0  Cl€ANhN6 

Amt  fwo. 
Total  £xp 

LNOlTURES 

for  Furniture,  uno  FuRnisminqs 

Z     PRESET  T  EQUIP  M£N  ff 


numerate,  the  principal  &y~t;cles  fn  each  -roovn.,  designati-rvq          -rooms  as 
parlor  kitchen,  etc,  jnd  state  the  kind  of  furniture,  ( <fg.  folding 
face,  curt a/ns) ,  arid  present  co-rLcLtti'oyO^ 
1st  ftooM  .  —  


Z  no  Room 


3 no.  Room  h 


4th.  Room  , 


5  th  Room 


£th.  Room 


1th.  RdoM  . 


3       WHftT.IS  THF  ZT-AIVOARO  OF  TASTS  AND  CCOHOMY   RC  PR  C  SE*  TZ  D  THE    F</RIV/TORC      AH  O 

je_u/?H /SH/A/6S  f  .  .   -  -  —  —  —  —  —  —  ____   —  —  —  —  —  —    —   —  — 


/SH.yr  FvnA"TL>r?z     coiict-tr    at       con d-Han d? . 


2o6 


TA*ES,  DUES  ahd  CONTRIBUTIONS 

J .  WHAT  MEMBERS  OF  THE  FAMILY  6Z-LONG  TO  LABOR-UNIONS?  


Z-  AMOUNT  PAID 
TO  LABOR-UNIONS 

3.  AMOUNT  PAID  IN  r*XCS    FOR  THE.  YEAR 

BY 

1 

B> 

Art  A  MOUNT  IN  GIFTS  OF  FRIENDSHIP  [oursroc.  OF  THE  FAHIIy) 

BY 

5.  Amount  paid  in  gifts  of  charity 

er 

biAMOUNT  PAIO  TO  CHURCH  OR  OTHER  RELIGIOUS  ORGAN 

/ZATIONS  FOR  THE  Y£AR  ..   \ 

TVTA tCAiD.TO  LABOR. -UNlOHSio* 

1 

7»  NHAT  MEMBERS  Of  THE  FAMILY  BELONG  JO  A  LODGE.   OR  OTHER  SOCIAL  ORGANISATION ?  .  


?•  AMOUNT  PAIO  TO  SUCH  SOClT/ES  PER  YEAR   

(2,)  AMOUNT  PAID  TO  LABOR -UNIONS  FOR  THE  YEAR  __ _____ 

i 

TOTAL  EXPENDITURES  FOR.  TAXES,  DUES  AND  CONTRIBUTIONS  |  

RECREATION  a*d  AMUSEMENTS 

ttl  WHAT  WATS  DO  ADULT  MEMBERS  OF  THE  FAMILY  SEEK  AMUSEMENT  AND  RECREATION.?. 


9  •  EXPENDITURES     FOR  THE    YEAR    FOR!  THE  THEATRE 

5.  EXPENDITURES    FOR   THE  YEAR    FOR  DANCES 

4    FOR  EXCURSIONS  AND  FLEAS  UR  E  -  TR  /PS  (EXCLUDING  CAR-FARPS) 

.S.  FOR    TO  YS    AND  PLAYTHINGS 

S.  fC*   OTHER  FORMS    OF   F)  N1  USE  MEN  TS  (  STATE  THE  PURPOSES  J 

TOTAL  EXPENDITURES    FOR  RECREATION  ANO  AMUSEMENTS 

i  i 

.  J 

297 


14 

CAR-FARES 


fiMOUNT     PAID    FOR.    C/>ft-^«?CS    OF     FATHER    TO    AND    FROM    RLACE.     OF  WOR\(\ 

FOR     CAP.  -  FARE  S     OF    OTHER         A  G  E  -  E  A  FT  V  £  R  S    TO    A  WO    FROM    PL  A  CE     OF  WO  Ft  f\ 

foP      CAR-PARES     OF    GmiOREN     TO    AND'    FROM  SCHOOL 

cOR     CAI-FARFS    OF    MOTS/PR..  _ 

\c2&~F~~rrgs    FOR  'visiting    rscreat iom,  etc. 

Total  £\r£no/tl/res  for  car-fares  for  the  year 

EDUCATION  and  READING 


SCHOOL,  EXPENSES  8SgCJtftD*€N  FOR 
TV5  YEAR  (EXCLUSIVE  CP  CAR-FARES^ 

WHAT  NEWSPAPERS   A  NO  PERIODICALS  ARE 
f30U$HTo.  .  , 

a-e.vspapers  Rva  periodica ls 

8  COKS 

POSTAGE    AND  STATIONERY 

WHAT  QOOnS  DOES  7HE,  FAMILY  HAVE.? 

Total  expenditure,  for  'plication and  reading 

/s  public  library  useo"  

BY  WHICH  MEMBERS    OF  FAMILY  ?. 


KI5CELL&NE0U5  EXPENDITURES 


CCH r:N GENT  EXPENSES.  (ficR  THE  yt*n) 

EX  PEN  o  /  TORE  fortear  fca  barber 

%  

FlVFRAL  EXPENSES 

FOR  OTHER    PERSONAL  SERVICE. 

Lr  gal  Expenses 

SPiA/plNQ  MONEY    (HOT  OTHER,  WISE  SPECIFIED) 

Expenses  of  moving 

PER  Pf* 

FATHER                       mi*  »      .   .   _  mi  I 

Interest  ov  debts 

Mother               na  4  1 

Repayment  gf  pebts 

CHILDREN  AT  VHOFK        Kn  J                   re  i 

£XPe-<OiTURZ    FCR  YEAR  FOR; 

CHILDREN  at  school.  Do  *                C  4 

.Te-i?AqcQ   

TOOLS 

[onus*.  «rv*v\ 

B2E*i  fVtffSKEY,  erel  J 

/NOIOENTA  LS 

.  (CC-CREAM 

CAI40Y  AND  SODA-WATER 

a  hy  r*/o. 

* 

Tot  ml  MISCELLANEOUS  EfPiHPTU*1* 

208 


SUMMARY  of  ANNUA!  EXPENDITURES 


h'OUS/NG                          m  ,. 

FUEL  AND  L/6HT 

FOOD 

!  NSl'RANCE. 

CLOTH  t  *t  G 

HE  A LTH 

FURNITURE.    AND  FURNISHING^ 

TAXES.  DUES   AND  CONTRIBUTIONS 

/RECREATION    AND  AMUSEMENTS 

CAR -FARES 

£ DUCAT/ON  AND  READING 

Af/5Ce  LLANEOUS 

TCTAW 

* 

REMARKS 


WHIN  FILLED  OUT}  SEND  THIS  SCHEDULE  TO  THE    SECRETARY  OfTHC    COMMITTEE    OH  5TANDARO   Of  LlVI"G  Of 

the  NY  State  Conference  of  Charities  ano Corrections j  Fo&ert  C  Ohapin^ 


APPENDIX  IV 


Report  from  Nine  Cities  and  Towns  Outside 
of  Greater  New  York 

Returns  were  received  in  the  summer  of  1907  from  ten  cities 
and  towns  in  the  state  outside  of  Greater  New  York,  including 
in  all  86  schedules.  Grateful  mention  should  be  made  of  the 
willingness  and  efficiency  of  those  who  co-operated  with  the 
Committee  in  gathering  the  information.*  The  schedules  from 
Buffalo,  Syracuse  and  Richfield  Springs  were  gathered  by  paid  in- 
vestigators; in  the  other  cities  and  towns  by  volunteers. 

The  more  exhaustive  investigation  into  the  standard  of  living 
in  Buffalo  made  by  Mr.  Howard,  in  1908  (see  Appendix  V,  page 
307)  renders  unnecessary,  in  the  present  connection,  the  considera- 
tion of  the  30  Buffalo  schedules  of  1907.  Three  of  the  remaining 
56  schedules  were  rejected  because  of  incompleteness,  and  the 
data  from  the  remainder  have  been  tabulated.  The  returns 
utilized  include  schedules  from  nine  localities,  as  follows: 


Syracuse  19 

Rochester   7 

Victor   2 

Honeoye  Falls   2 

Richfield  Springs  10 

Elmira   6 

Albany   3 

Whitehall   3 

Maryland   1 


53 

By  income,  the  distribution  appears  in  the  following  table: 

*  The  thanks  of  the  Committee  are  due  especially  to  Mr.  John  R.  Howard,  Jr., 
Buffalo,  Mrs.  Lewis  Bigelow,  Rochester,  Professor  E.  L.  Earp,  Syracuse,  Miss 
Anna  B.  Pratt,  Elmira,  Miss  Alida  Lattimore,  Whitehall,  Mr.  Robert  W.  Hill  and 
Mr.  Arthur  W.  Towne,  Albany. 

300 


REPORT  FROM  NINE  OTHER  CITIES 


0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

O 

0 

0 

0 

Q 
% 

Tot  a  i 

$300  ti 
$399. 

$400  t 
$499. 

$500  t 
$599. 

$600  t 
$699. 

$700  t 
$799. 

$800  t 
$899. 

$900  t 
$999. 

6601$ 
1  0001$ 

o<^ 

©-H 
•— (  H 

hW 

OO 

O  O-J 

(A 

$1300  a 

Over. 

Syracuse   

19 

I 

3 

1 

3 

2 

I 

A 
1 

■2 
O 

1 

1<  i r* n fi 1  ri  NnrinffC 
JxlClillCH-l  Opiillgo  mm* 

10 

2 

3 

3 

I 

I 

7 

I 

2 

1 

I 

I 

1 

2 

1 

I 

Honeoye  Falls  

1 

I 

6 

I 

2 

1 

I 

1 

3 

2 

I 

Whitehall  

3 

1 

I 

I 

Maryland  

1 

I 

Total  

53 

I 

1 

4 

10 

8 

8 

3 

4 

5 

6 

3 

In  view  of  the  small  number  of  schedules  obtained,  it  has 
been  deemed  advisable  to  include  not  only  those  of  families 
with  incomes  well  above  $1000,  but  also  those  of  families  with 
less  than  4  and  more  than  6  members.  This  wide  range,  how- 
ever, together  with  the  small  number  of  schedules,  makes  dif- 
ficult any  very  exact  comparison  of  the  returns  from  the  dif- 
ferent localities.  Nevertheless  these  returns  have  a  distinct  value, 
and  it  is  hoped  that  the  publication  of  them  may  suggest  the 
value  of  a  more  comprehensive  study  of  local  conditions  in  each 
locality. 

The  occupations  of  these  53  families  are  typical  of  the  com- 
munities in  which  they  live.  Factory-operatives  predominate  in 
the  manufacturing  centers,  with  employees  in  the  building-trades, 
clerks,  laborers  and  railway  employees.  In  the  smaller  places 
are  clerks,  printers,  artisans  and  laborers. 

For  the  purpose  of  exhibiting  some  of  the  resemblances  and 
differences,  so  far  as  they  appear  in  the  schedules  received,  Tables 
129-130  (pages  305-306)  have  been  prepared.  In  several  cases, 
where  only  one  family  could  be  taken,  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  that 
this  family,  or  the  averages  for  3  or  5  families,  are  typical,  and  too 
much  should  not  be  inferred  from  these  tables.  They  do  at  least 
show  what  is  possible  in  a  given  case,  and  the  selection  has  been 
made  so  as  to  include  a  wide  variety  of  circumstances.  Rochester 
and  Syracuse  are  manufacturing  cities,  Victor  is  a  suburban  out- 
post of  Rochester,  Richfield  Springs  a  country  town  of  3000  inhabi- 
tants.   For  these  localities,  comparison  of  the  families  with  in- 

301 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


comes  of  from  $600  to  $700  has  been  possible,  and  the  figures  for 
the  New  York  City  families  of  the  same  income-group  are  repro- 
duced for  comparison.  Elmira  and  Albany  are  cities  of  a  different 
type,  and  Whitehall  is  a  small  manufacturing  city  in  a  locality  where 
fuel  is  dear.  The  one  schedule  from  the  town  of  Maryland  gives 
the  budget  of  a  farm  laborer,  who  occupies  a  4-room  house  at  the 
nominal  rent  of  $2  a  month. 

The  salient  feature  of  these  schedules  from  outside  New  York 
City  is  the  lower  cost  of  housing.  This  appears  in  two  forms: 
in  the  lower  rental  charges,  and  in  the  large  proportion  of  house- 
owners  among  wage-earners.  The  proportion  of  income  spent 
for  rent  is  less,  the  smaller  the  city.  In  New  York  rent  absorbs 
24  per  cent,  of  the  expenditure  of  a  family  with  an  income  between 
|6oo  and  $700.  In  Syracuse  and  Rochester  it  takes  less  than 
20  per  cent.,  in  Richfield  Springs  14  per  cent,  (in  2  cases  out  of  3), 
in  Victor  14  per  cent. 

In  the  second  place,  the  number  of  house-owners  reported 
is  suggestive.  In  Rochester  and  its  suburbs  8  of  the  1 1  families 
own  houses,  or  are  buying  them  on  the  instalment  plan.  Two  of 
the  Rochester  families  averaged  in  the  $600  column  are  paying  for 
houses  of  their  own.  One  of  these,  an  Italian  family  of  5  persons, 
occupies  3  rooms  and  rents  the  rest  of  the  house  for  $132,  paying 
$48  a  year  for  interest  on  a  mortgage  of  ?6oo.  An  English  shoe- 
maker, with  a  family  of  4  and  a  total  income  of  $680,  is  paying  for 
his  house  in  instalments  of  $200  a  year.  Clothing  is  the  only  item 
in  his  budget  that  seems  to  suffer  in  consequence,  although  the 
food-expenditure  is  at  the  rate  of  24  cents  per  man  per  day. 
Altogether,  15  of  the  53  families  are  reported  as  owning  their 
houses.* 

In  the  tables  two  Whitehall  families  are  entered,  one  owning 
and  one  renting  its  dwelling.  The  house-owning  family  has 
a  money  income  of  $780,  as  against  $884  for  the  house-renting 
family.  But  the  charge  of  $120  for  rent  in  the  budget  of  the 
latter  family  consumes  the  difference,  and  leaves  the  expenditure 
for  the  remaining  items  nearly  the  same  for  the  two  families. 

*  Out  of  642  schedules  received  from  Greater  New  York,  only  6  were  of  house- 
owning  families;  4  of  these  were  from  Brooklyn,  2  from  Manhattan,  and  in  all 
but  1  case  the  family  income  was  over  $1000. 


302 


REPORT  FROM  NINE  OTHER  CITIES 


The  principal  exception  is  in  the  matter  of  taxes,  where  the 
house-owning  family  pays  $45  as  against  $12  for  the  other  family. 
In  the  schedules  of  house-owning  families  in  other  cities  the  taxes 
appear  as  a  larger  item  than  for  the  house-renters,  and  the  surplus 
otherwise  seems  to  be  expended  among  the  various  items  according 
to  no  fixed  rule.* 

Not  only  is  the  cost  of  housing  less  in  the  cities  outside  of  New 
York,  but  the  accommodations  enjoyed  are  better.  Detached 
houses  are  the  rule,  with  no  question  of  access  to  light  and  air. 
The  number  of  rooms  is  3  in  only  1  case  of  the  53  (Rochester); 
only  6  report  4  rooms,  and  7  and  8  rooms  are  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. In  cities  with  water  service  a  private  toilet  is  the  rule, 
and  a  bath-room  is  frequently  reported.  For  $8  a  month  in  the 
smaller  towns  of  the  State  and$  10  or  $1 1  in  the  cities  like  Syracuse, 
better  accommodations  can  be  secured  than  for  $15  in  Manhattan. 

In  the  smaller  places  there  is  opportunity  to  raise  vegetables 
and  fruit  in  a  garden,  and  this  is  noted  in  many  of  the  schedules. 
Eggs  and  poultry  are  also  raised  in  many  instances  at  home.  The 
calculation  of  food-expenditures  per  man  per  day,  on  the  cash 
basis,  needs  supplementing  in  these  cases.  The  large  size  of  some 
of  the  families  reported,  especially  in  Syracuse,  explains  in  part 
the  low  allowance  for  food  per  man  per  day. 

In  regard  to  clothing  the  averages  and  percentages  as  tabu- 
lated point  to  a  larger  expenditure  for  this  purpose  outside  of 
New  York  City  than  within  it.  It  would  be  interesting  to  pursue 
the  subject  further,  especially  with  regard  to  Rochester.  Rochester 
is,  like  New  York,  a  center  of  the  garment-trades,  and  the  3  fami- 
lies there  with  incomes  between  $600  and  $700  report  a  lower 
average  expenditure  for  clothing  than  the  average  of  the  72  with 
the  same  income  in  New  York  City.  With  this  exception,  the 
figures  point  to  a  higher  cost  of  clothing  in  the  state  at  large  than 
in  New  York  City. 

A  comparison  of  the  expenditures  for  the  various  items  of  the 
budget  in  the  several  localities  may  be  facilitated  by  the  tables 
of  averages  and  percentages  on  pages  305  and  306.     In  many  in- 

*  In  the  tabulation  of  the  Syracuse  schedules  an  amount  equal  to  the  rental 
value  of  the  house  owned  is  added  to  the  total  income,  and  the  same  amount  is 
entered  under  "Housing"  and  included  in  the  total  of  expenditures. 

303 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


stances  the  variations  indicate  merely  the  taste  and  habit  of 
a  single  family  rather  than  a  social  standard.  It  would  be  hazard- 
ous on  the  basis  of  so  small  a  number  of  cases  to  make  an  estimate 
of  the  sum  required  to  maintain  a  normal  standard  in  each  com- 
munity. It  would  certainly  fall  below  the  amount  needed  in 
New  York  City,  but  the  exact  measure  of  the  difference  requires 
a  larger  induction  of  cases. 


304 


< 
& 

55 

£  . 

si 

u£ 

rig 

HZ 

^2 

c< 
>  & 

0 

oh 

is 

<£ 

Ed 

I2 
a  a 


Mary- 
land. 

J?                   I       O  vC 

2  00        tJ-       On       'i"            -^-OO  « 

U    O       !     4    M             H     H     M       I     M     M  O 

cu 

White- 
hall. 
(Renter.) 

i  Family 
U.  S.+ 

$884.00 
894.42 

2    "3-       O   WlflN    CMO  fOO    tJ-  M 

^    <0  !oN«^r^C^cio'i-<'-ldci 

2  M 

White 
Hall. 
(House- 
owner.) 

i  Family 
U.  S  * 
S-t 

$780.00 

803.65 

Per  Cent. 

9-3 
51.0 
17.9 
10.6 

1.0 
0.1 
5-6 
0.4 

3-2 

0.9 

Albany. 

1  Family 
U.  S* 
4-t 

$815.00 
804.82 

9    O  C    Q>              N        'J'O  l^.O  00 
^     «    O    4         T  6          M          M    d  CO 
u    1-1              vo  H 

04 

i 

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w 

3  Fam- 
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Income 
$7  5°  to 
$810. 
Various.* 

$769.12 

795-68 

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^    6  O  O  toiflM  ci  ri-O  O  h  4 

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Income 
$589  to 
$700. 
Various.* 
S.o-t 

$628.40 
2654.94 

O  ' 

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^  c>dvdTi-diocitoMdd4 

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Rich- 
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Springs. 

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Income 
$600  to 
$700. 
U.  S  * 
5-t 

$624.00 
571.82 

2«       lOlON  r^OroOvo^ 

^06   !  Tt-vd  >-*   !  <o  »-<  m  w  0'  n 

Victor. 

1  Family 
U.  S  * 
S-t 

$600.00 

595-41 

S    M        OO^O    fO  NlO^mNUI 

^   -4-   !  vd  ■<*  r>-  !  h  ri  d  »o  h  \>j 
u    M  rocs 
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Roch- 
ester. 

3  Fam- 
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Income 
$S«o  to 

$680. 

Various.* 
$627.66 

0  0^0  in  q  <t  c^n  fooc  no  r>»sq 

^    (j  m'  O    M    «    h'   f<  M    PI   O    O'  H 
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New 
York. 

B  .as  .*v   1    ~  £ 

ft|§jf«3  ■  as, 

*-    ^        >  <^ 

Per  Cent. 
23.6 

5-° 

44.6 
I2.9 

2.0 

2.1 

1.0 

1.2 

0.5 
0.7 

3-9 

3 

if 

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305 


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3 


306 


APPENDIX  V 


Report  on  the  Standard  of  Living  among 
Workingmen's  Families  in  Buffalo, 
New  York 

By  John  R.  Howard,  Jr. 

The  investigation  of  the  cost  of  living  in  Buffalo,  undertaken 
on  behalf  of  the  Committee  on  Standard  of  Living  of  the  New 
York  State  Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction,  was  limited 
to  ioo  families.  This  was  done  partly  because  the  amount  of 
the  appropriation  and  the  brief  time  allowed  (three  summer 
months)  admitted  of  no  more  extensive  study;  and  partly  in  the 
belief  that  ioo  families,  selected  with  care  and  interviewed  by 
a  few  experienced  investigators,  would  yield  more  accurate  re- 
sults than  a  larger  number  selected  at  random  and  interviewed 
by  untrained  volunteers.  Miss  Emma  O.  Lundberg,  Master  of 
Arts  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  who  was  chosen  to  execute 
the  work,  gathered  her  own  facts  from  51  of  the  100  families; 
while  30  of  the  families  of  foreign  birth  were  interviewed  by  three 
women  peculiarly  qualified  by  experience  and  nationality  for 
work  in  this  field,  and  the  other  19  by  social  workers,  men  and 
women,  most  of  whom  had  the  advantage  of  long-standing  ac- 
quaintance with  the  families  they  selected  for  the  study. 

After  careful  consideration  of  the  study  that  had  previously 
been  made  in  New  York  City,  the  investigators  in  Buffalo  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  the  single  standard  adopted  in  the  New  York 
investigation  would  not  be  satisfactory  for  all  nationalities. 
It  was  believed,  for  instance,  that  the  Poles,  of  whom  there  are 
about  95,000  in  the  city,  and  the  Italians,  of  whom  there  are 
about  20,000,  would  show,  and  would  require,  a  lower  standard 
of  life  than  the  other,  more  Americanized  peoples.    It  was  there- 

307 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


fore  determined  to  select  50  families  of  various  nationalities,  25 
Polish,  and  25  Italian,  believing  that  while  the  numbers  were  not 
sufficient  accurately  to  define  standards  of  life  for  families  of  these 
three  types,  they  would  at  least  indicate  prevailing  differences,  and 
taken  together  form  an  adequate  ground  for  comparison  with  the 
standard  set  up  for  New  York  by  the  Committee  last  year. 

It  was  suggested  that  the  investigation  be  limited  to  families 
with  incomes  not  exceeding  $500,  the  supposed  maximum  wage 
of  the  average  day  laborer,  in  order  to  discover  what  the  ordinary 
workingman  was  able  to  provide  for  his  family;  but  it  was  con- 
cluded that  the  investigation  must  include  incomes  large  enough 
to  provide  the  essentials  of  a  proper  standard  of  living,  in  order 
to  learn  the  cost  of  such  essentials.  Accordingly,  the  investi- 
gation was  limited  to  families  with  incomes  not  exceeding  $700,  a 
sum  generally  considered  ample  in  Buffalo. 

The  Schedule. — The  procedure  with  respect  to  filling  out 
schedules  for  these  families  was  similar  to  that  followed  in  New 
York.  The  schedules  were  identical.  It  is  not  necessary,  there- 
fore, again  to  describe  the  questions  asked  under  the  several  head- 
ings with  regard  to  housing,  fuel  and  light,  furniture,  insurance, 
food,  clothing,  taxes,  dues  and  contributions,  recreation  and 
amusements,  education  and  reading,  and  miscellaneous. 

Nationalities. — As  has  already  been  indicated,  25  of  the  100 
families  were  Italians  and  25  Polish.  Of  the  other  50  families, 
19  were  Americans,  13  Germans,  5  Irish,  3  Scotch,  2  English, 

2  Canadians,  2  Swedish,  1  colored,  1  Dutch,  1  Austrian,  and  1 
Roumanian. 

Occupations. — Among  those  selected  were  42  laborers,  8 
carpenters,  3  paperhangers,  3  moulders,  3  painters,  3  watdvmen, 

3  hackmen,  2  delivery  men,  2  tailors,  2  gardeners,  and  1  each  of 
twenty-seven  other  occupations. 

Income. 

The  average  income  of  the  100  families  was  $600,  and  the  average 
disbursement  $632.  This  discrepancy,  however,  seems  to  have 
been  due  more  to  the  hard  times  than  to  permanent  inability  to 
make  ends  meet.  The  largest  part  of  it  occurs  in  the  Polish 
families,  who  have  no  idea  how  their  money  goes,  and  so  are  at 

308 


REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION  IN  BUFFALO 

a  loss  to  know  how  to  meet  the  emergency  when  earnings  are 
curtailed. 

In  29  per  cent,  of  the  100  families  the  mother's  earnings  added 
to  the  income,  the  number  of  cases  being  pretty  evenly  distributed 
among  the  races,  with  one  exception.  The  exception  was,  as 
might  be  supposed,  in  the  Italian  families,  where  only  one  mother 
was  reported  as  adding  to  the  income,  and  she  by  work  in  the 
country  during  the  summer.  There  would  undoubtedly  have 
been  more  cases  reported  of  this  kind  of  labor  had  the  investiga- 
tion not  been  made  in  the  summer,  for  hundreds  of  the  low-wage 
Italians  move  to  the  canning  districts  with  the  spring. 

Six  per  cent,  of  the  families  have  lodgers  and  31  per  cent,  have 
incomes  from  children's  earnings  and  other  sources.  It  is  in 
the  Polish  families  that  the  man's  earnings  are  most  frequently 
supplemented,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  the  average  income 
of  the  Polish  families  is  $604,  while  the  average  wage  of  a  Polish 
man  is  $422. 

Expenditures. 

In  discussing  the  various  expenditures  of  these  families,  com- 
parison will  be  made  with  the  72  families  of  the  §600  to  $700  group 
in  the  New  York  study,  the  average  disbursement  of  that  group 
being  $650,  while  the  average  disbursement  of  the  Buffalo  families 
is  $632.  . 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  New  York  family  averages  5 
persons,  and  the  Buffalo  family  6.  This  in  itself  may  indicate  a 
less  severe  struggle  for  existence  in  Buffalo  than  in  New  York, 
though  it  may  also  be  due  to  a  difference  in  selection  of  cases. 

HOUSING. 

The  average  amount  paid  for  rent  by  the  Buffalo  family  of 
6  is  $8.00  a  month.  For  this,  4  rooms  are  obtained,  with  an 
average  of  i£  windows  to  a  room,  each  opening  upon  the  outer  air. 
The  New  York  family  of  5  persons  pays  $13  a  month  for  3  rooms, 
one  of  which  is  without  access  to  the  outer  air.  In  the  Buffalo  in- 
vestigation 7  dark  rooms  only  were  found,  2  of  them  alcoves  of 
rooms  with  outside  windows.  In  addition  to  this,  half  of  the 
families  live  in  one-  or  two-family,  detached,  frame  houses  with 

309 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

air-space  on  four  sides,  and  the  other  half  live,  for  the  most  part, 
in  houses  to  which  the  name  tenement-houses  is  applied  only 
because  there  are  three  or  more  families  in  them.  The  typical 
Buffalo  house  is  a  two-story,  detached  frame  house,  having  a  grass 
plot  in  front  and  a  yard  behind.  Almost  any  residence  street  on 
the  east  side  of  Buffalo  is  wider,  greener,  and  quieter  than  the  finest 
residence  streets  in  Manhattan,  but  clean  air  is  lacking.  Buffalo 
is  a  smoky  city. 

There  is  over-crowding  in  Buffalo,  but,  outside  of  a  few  large 
tenement-houses,  the  crowding  occurs  within  detached  houses  sur- 
rounded by  ample  air-space.  Over-crowding  under  such  condi- 
tions may  be  a  serious  evil  if  health  laws  are  not  wise  and  health 
officers  vigilant,  but  in  Buffalo  the  laws  are  good,  and  they  are  well 
enforced.  There  are,  however,  among  the  50  Polish  and  Italian 
families  of  this  study,  13  families  averaging  5  persons  who  live 
in  2  rooms,  2  of  these  families  having  7  persons;  and  there  are  12 
families  averaging  6  persons  who  live  in  3  rooms,  one  a  family  of 
9,  and  three  others  numbering  7  persons  each. 

FURNITURE. 

The  annual  expenditure  for  furniture  is  $7.00,  $1.00  more  than 
in  New  York.  When  it  is  considered  that  this  sum,  amounting 
to  134  cents  a  week,  provides  for  all  furniture  and  household  and 
kitchen  utensils,  it  is  seen  to  be  little  enough.  All  large  purchases 
must  be  made  on  the  instalment  plan,  but  there  was  very  little 
of  this  last  year  because  of  the  hard  times,  even  those  with  normal 
earnings  seeming  to  hold  back  for  fear  of  coming  to  want. 

INSURANCE. 

Twenty  dollars  is  the  average  amount  spent  for  insurance, 
as  against  $13  in  New  York;  and  in  Buffalo,  as  in  New  York, 
this  is  chiefly  for  life  insurance,  only  13  of  the  families  having 
property  insured.  Sixty-five  per  cent,  of  the  100  families  were 
insured:  of  the  Italian  families,  only  28  per  cent.,  of  the  Polish 
families,  84  per  cent.,  and  of  the  other  50  families,  74  per  cent. 


310 


REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION  IN  BUFFALO 

FOOD. 

In  discussing  the  food  item,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the 
average  Buffalo  family  is  3.8  units,  figuring  an  adult  man  as  the 
unit,  and  the  mother  and  children  in  proportion  thereto,  while 
the  average  New  York  family  of  the  group  under  consideration 
is  3.3  units. 

In  the  New  York  investigation  100  schedules  were  submitted 
to  Dr.  Frank  P.  Underhill,  assistant  professor  of  Physiological 
Chemistry  at  Yale,  to  determine  the  nutritive  values  of  the  food 
actually  bought  by  these  families,  and  to  calculate  from  such 
figures  what  expenditure  was  necessary  to  maintain  physical 
efficiency.  Dr.  Underhill  estimated  that  families  that  spent  less 
than  22  cents  per  man  per  day  were  insufficiently  nourished, 
and  that  those  who  spent  22  cents  or  more  per  man  per  day  were 
sufficiently  nourished.    (See  Appendix  VI,  page  322.) 

In  like  manner,  50  of  the  Buffalo  food  schedules  were  sub- 
mitted to  Dr.  Underhill  for  analysis  (see  page  324).  The  item 
"liquor  used  at  table,"  however,  which  was  included  in  the 
New  York  schedules  analyzed,  was  omitted.  From  this  study 
it  appears  that  21  cents  per  man  per  day  is  the  minimum  for 
Buffalo;  but  when  the  item  "liqour  used  at  table"  is  included, 
it  brings  the  standard  up  to  the  22  cents  estimated  for  New  York. 
Because  of  some  misunderstanding  with  respect  to  this  standard, 
the  fact  must  be  emphasized  that  it  is  not  an  a  priori  standard 
based  upon  the  cost  of  food  bought  in  assumed  quantities  and 
variety,  but  a  figure  based  upon  the  actual  food  bought  by  repre- 
sentative families.  The  analysis  showed  that  of  the  50  Buffalo 
schedules  submitted,  80  per  cent,  of  those  showing  an  expendi- 
ture of  21  cents  or  more  per  man  per  day  were  sufficiently  nourished, 
and  83  per  cent,  of  those  showing  an  expenditure  of  less  than 
21  cents  per  man  per  day  were  insufficiently  nourished. 

The  average  disbursement  for  food  in  Buffalo  is  $299,  compared 
with  $279  in  New  York;  but,  as  we  have  seen,  the  New  York 
families  average  3.3  units,  while  the  Buffalo  families  average 
3.8.  The  actual  expenditure  per  man  per  day  is  21^  cents 
in  Buffalo,  and  23  cents  in  New  York,  comparing  always  with 
the  |6oo  to  $700  group  in  New  York.    These  figures  include 

3*J 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


liquor  at  table,  so  that  the  average  Buffalo  family  spends  one- 
half  cent  less  than  the  standard  of  22  cents,  and  the  average 
New  York  family  spends  1  cent  more  than  the  standard.* 

The  meals  correspond  very  nearly  to  those  of  the  New  York 
families.  The  meals  in  the  Polish  families  are  not  unlike  those 
of  the  other  nationalities  in  Buffalo,  except  that  a  breakfast 
of  coffee  and  bread  only  is  more  common,  meat  is  oftener  served 
at  lunch,  and  a  chicken  for  Sunday  dinner  is  not  infrequent- 
The  Italians  have  macaroni  once  or  twice  a  day,  beer  everyday, 
and  a  greater  variety  of  food  than  the  other  nationalities.  It 
may  be  of  interest  to  note,  here,  that  10  of  the  50  schedules  sub- 
mitted to  Dr.  Underhill  were  of  Polish  families,  and  10  Italian, 
and  that  the  tables  show  that  the  same  minimum  of  22  cents  per 
man  per  day  holds  even  more  decidedly  for  these  nationalities. 
Pertinent  to  this  subject  is  Dr.  Underbill's  statement  to  the  effect 
that  "no  definite  relation  appears  to  exist  between  the  purchase 
of  a  preponderance  of  animal  or  vegetable  food  and  an  ability 
to  live  at  a  low  figure."  In  spite,  then,  of  the  apparent  variety 
of  the  Italians'  food,  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  they  average 
but  2oJ  cents  per  man  per  day,  and  so  are  probably  under- 
nourished; and,  further,  that  ij  cents  of  this  amount  goes  for 
beer,  so  that  19  cents  is  the  amount  spent  for  nutritive  food,  or  an 
amount  2  cents  below  the  minimum  set  by  Dr.  Underhill.  The 
expense  per  man  per  day  of  the  Poles  is  2iJ  cents  with  liquor, 
which  is  one-half  cent  below  minimum,  and  20  cents  without 
liquor,  which  is  1  cent  below  minimum.  The  expense  per  man 
per  day  for  the  other  50  families  is  22  cents,  which  equals  the 
minimum;  and  because  they  spend  less  for  liquor  at  table,  their 
expense  without  this  item  is  21  i  cents,  or  one-half  cent  above 
the  minimum.  The  New  York  families  spend  6.2  per  cent,  of 
the  total  disbursement  for  food  for  liquor  used  in  the  home, 
which  reduces  their  actual  expenditure  for  nutritive  food  to  2\\ 
cents  per  man  per  day,  as  in  Buffalo. 

*  The  number  of  cents  per  man  per  day  is  here  calculated  as  in  the  report  of 
Dr.  Frankel,  page  265,  by  dividing  the  average  annual  expenditure  for  food  by 
the  average  number  of  "units,"  and  this  annual  average  per  unit  by  365.  For 
Table  64,  page  141,  calculation  was  made  for  each  family,  as  explained  on  page 
126,  and  the  results  averaged  by  income  and  nationality.  The  variations  in  the 
results  obtained  by  the  two  methods  are  due  to  the  difference  in  treating  meals 
away  from  home. 

312 


REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION  IN  BUFFALO 


CLOTHING. 

The  Buffalo  family  spends  for  clothing  $117,  or  i8£  per  cent, 
of  the  total  expenditure,  where  the  New  York  family  spends 
$83,  or  13  per  cent,  of  the  total.  In  Buffalo  §10.50  of  this  goes 
for  washing;  in  New  York  §8.50.  One-third  of  the  families  receive 
gifts  of  clothing  in  both  cities. 

HEALTH. 

The  average  amount  spent  for  health  in  Buffalo  is  §15.  This 
shows  an  average  expenditure  of  $1.00  more  than  was  shown  in 
New  York,  but  there  was  less  use  of  free  dispensaries,  probably 
because  they  are  not  so  available  in  Buffalo.  Twelve  of  the 
families  reported  having  had  free  medical  aid;  only  4  had  employed 
a  dentist. 

CAR-FARE. 

Fifteen  dollars  is  the  average  sum  spent  for  car-fare,  nearly 
all  by  the  man  going  to  and  from  work.  This  item  is  §4.00  higher 
than  for  New  York,  probably  because  of  the  greater  distances 
of  the  homes  from  the  places  of  work. 

TAXES,  DUES,  AND  CONTRIBUTIONS. 

To  religious  organizations,  labor  unions,  and  lodges  about 
$8.00  is  contributed.  This  is  the  same  as  in  New  York;  but  in 
New  York  28  per  cent,  of  the  families  spent  nothing  for  these 
purposes,  while  in  Buffalo  but  20  per  cent,  reported  no  ex- 
penditures under  this  head. 

RECREATION. 

Four  dollars  is  spent  for  recreation  and  amusement,  14  per 
cent,  more  than  in  New  York.  Twenty-five  of  the  families  re- 
ported taking  excursions,  21  attendance  at  the  theaters,  and  39 
the  use  of  the  parks;  but  the  amount  of  such  recreation  that  can 
be  enjoyed  by  a  family  of  6  on  an  expenditure  of  $4.00  per  year 
may  be  easily  reckoned. 

313 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


EDUCATION  AND  READING. 

The  Buffalo  family  spends  $6.00  for  education  and  reading, 
mostly  for  newspapers;  the  New  York  family,  $5.00.  The  expen- 
ditures of  the  Poles  bring  up  the  average  of  this  item  because  of 
their  parochial-school  tax.  Sixty-eight  families  buy  newspapers, 
35  have  books  in  their  homes,  and  38  make  use  of  the  public 
library. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

For  miscellaneous  expenditures,  including  all  spending  money 
and  incidentals,  the  average  amount  is  $12.  Most  of  this  goes 
for  tobacco  and  shaving  for  the  man.  In  the  New  York  group 
this  item  is  $25,  of  which  $10  is  spent  for  tobacco  alone. 


SUMMARY. 

To  summarize  the  results  and  comparisons,  the  average  expen- 
ditures (by  percentages)  are: 

Buffalo.  New  York. 

Rent                                                 15   per  cent.  23^  per  cent. 

Food                                                47     "      "  44!  "  " 

Clothing                                            i8|  "     "  13  " 

Fuel  and  Light                                    6    "     "  6     "  " 

Total   86£  per  cent.  87   per  cent. 

Car-fare,  Insurance  and  Health   8  percent.  6  percent. 

Sundries   5^  "      "  7     "  " 

Total  100  per  cent.  100   per  cent. 

From  a  study  of  the  New  York  report  and  the  Buffalo  schedules, 
it  appears  that  the  only  item  of  real  difference  in  the  respec- 
tive schedules  is  rent.  The  high  rentals  in  New  York  render  it 
impossible  for  families  in  that  city  to  spend  as  much  upon 
the  other  items  as  families  of  the  same  income  in  Buffalo.  The 
excess  on  food  expenditure  in  Buffalo  is  due  entirely  to  the 
larger  sized  family.  The  greater  expenditure  for  clothing  may 
be  explained  partly  by  the  additional  member  in  the  family, 
but  is  undoubtedly  due  mainly,  as  are  the  larger  expenditures  for 
the  remaining  items,  to  the  fact  that  there  is  a  greater  surplus 
available,  owing  to  the  lower  cost  of  housing. 

314 


REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION  IN  BUFFALO 

If  all  the  items  but  rent,  then,  be  practically  the  same,  or  if 
there  is  no  fundamental  reason  why  they  should  not  be  the  same 
for  the  same  sized  family  in  New  York  and  Buffalo,  what  is  to 
prevent  our  transposing  the  standard  proposed  for  New  York 
to  Buffalo,  simply  by  modifying  this  one  item?  The  New  York 
report  (page  279)  reads:  "With  an  income  of  between  $700  and 
$800  a  family  can  barely  support  itself,  provided  that  it  is  subject 
to  no  extraordinary  expenditures  by  reason  of  sickness,  death, 
or  other  untoward  circumstances.  Such  a  family  can  live  with- 
out charitable  assistance  through  exceptional  management  and 
in  the  absence  of  emergencies."  But  the  difference  in  rent  be- 
tween the  Buffalo  families  ($96)  and  the  New  York  families  with 
an  income  of  $700  to  $800  ($161)  is  $65;  so  by  substituting  $635 
to  $735  for  $700  to  $800  in  the  above  statement,  we  arrive  at 
an  analogous  standard  for  Buffalo.  Again,  the  New  York  report 
(page  281)  reads:  "It  is  a  fairly  conservative  estimate  that  $825 
is  sufficient  for  the  average  family  of  5  individuals,  comprising 
father,  mother,  and  3  children  under  fourteen  years  of  age,  to 
maintain  a  fairly  proper  standard  of  living  in  the  Borough  of 
Manhattan."  The  difference  between  the  Buffalo  rent  ($96) 
and  that  of  the  $800  to  $900  group  in  New  York  ($168)  is  $72,  so 
the  standard  of  $825  proposed  for  New  York  becomes  approxi- 
mately $755  in  Buffalo,  because  of  the  difference  in  rent.  This 
standard  seems  to  be  as  necessary  for  Poles  and  Italians  as  for 
the  other  nationalities. 

This  New  York  standard  of  $825  is,  as  stated  above,  based 
upon  the  average  expenditure  of  the  $800  to  $900  group  (Table 
III,  page  272),  namely  $811,  the  surplus  being  allowed  for  emer- 
gencies. The  New  York  report  says  of  this  group  (page  281) 
that  all  its  main  items  of  expense  seem  to  provide  for  a  normal 
standard.  Examination  of  the  Buffalo  families  leads  to  the 
belief  that  the  items  of  expense  as  shown  for  this  group  in  New 
York,  with  one  exception,  would  provide  in  Buffalo  what  should 
be  called  a  minimum  standard.  The  one  exception  is  the  item 
of  food.  For  this  item  the  amount  of  $359  appears.  Eighteen 
dollars  of  this  is  for  meals  away  from  home,  an  item  that  does 
not  appear  in  the  Buffalo  budgets,  and  the  remaining  $341  pro- 
vides an  allowance  of  27  cents  per  day  per  unit.    That  is  5  cents 

315 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


per  day  per  unit,  or  $64  a  year,  more  than  the  minimum  set  by 
Dr.  Underhill.  Dr.  Underhill  demonstrates  that  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  families  spending  22  cents  per  day  per  unit  or  more 
(in  Buffalo  80  per  cent.)  were,  as  far  as  could  be  determined, 
sufficiently  nourished.  The  minimum  was  purposely  set  at  a 
figure  that  made  the  chances  greatly  in  favor  of  this  condition. 
Dr.  Underhill  himself  says  of  this  minimum:  "The  task  of  de- 
ciding whether  a  person  is  receiving  sufficient  food  is  not  easy, 
owing  to  the  many  standards  upheld  by  the  various  schools  of 
nutrition.  However,  if  the  average  standard  generally  accepted 
be  adopted,  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  the  acceptance  of  the 
condition  of  sufficient  nourishment."  Therefore,  in  determining 
a  minimum  standard  for  Buffalo,  a  sum  upon  which  a  family  of 
5  can  maintain  physical  efficiency,  which  surely  demands  a  "fairly 
proper  standard  of  living,"  it  seems  fair  to  adhere  to  Dr.  Under- 
bill's minimum  of  22  cents  per  day  per  unit  for  food.  To  do  this 
we  must  subtract  from  the  standard  of  $755  already  proposed,  $18 
for  the  meals  away  from  home,  and  $64  for  the  lower  food  al- 
lowance, and  so  obtain  a  standard  for  Buffalo  approximating  $675. 

In  estimating  a  minimum  standard,  the  item  of  rent  is  readily 
determined.  The  $800  to  $900  group  in  New  York  spends 
$168  for  rent,  which  is  $72  more  than  the  Buffalo  families  spend. 
They  obtain  for  this  3^  rooms,  one  of  which  is  dark,  while  the 
Buffalo  families  have  4  rooms,  all  opening  on  the  outer  air.  Under 
present  conditions  the  New  York  standard  of  housing  cannot 
be  raised  nor  the  Buffalo  standard  lowered,  for  New  York  tenement- 
houses  do  not  permit  of  the  one,  nor  the  Buffalo  detached  houses 
of  the  other.  In  the  matter  of  clothing,  the  studies  reveal  impor- 
tant facts  bearing  on  a  possible  minimum.  But  who  can  say  that 
an  average  family  of  five  needs  this  amount  or  that?  And  if  there 
is  difficulty  in  determining  the  item  of  clothing,  what  is  to  be  said 
of  such  items  as  health,  insurance,  education,  or  amusements? 
Does  any  one  who  believes  recreation  to  be  an  essential  part  of 
the  cost  of  a  proper  standard  of  living  really  think  that  $6.00 
covers  the  need  for  a  family  of  5  for  a  year?  The  man  who  agrees 
to  $6.00  will  probably  agree  also  to  $10.  How  are  we  to  decide 
which  is  right?  What  process  of  reasoning  is  actually  applied 
to  the  items  outside  of  food,  rent,  and  clothing,  in  basing  a  stan- 

3.6 


REPORT  OF  INVESTIGATION  IN  BUFFALO 

dard  of  living  upon  the  expenditures  shown  by  400  families?  Is 
there  any  actual  measuring  of  the  efficacy  of  the  average  dis- 
bursements? There  is  not;  and  the  method  is  an  a  priori  method, 
modified  possibly  by  the  facts  shown,  but  in  a  very  vague  way 
that  by  no  means  establishes  the  standard  on  empirical  grounds. 

These  remarks  are  not  offered  as  a  criticism  of  the  New  York 
investigation.  The  New  York  committee  very  distinctly  says 
that  it  "does  not  feel  that  the  investigation  which  has  been  made 
is  more  than  a  preliminary  one,  and  for  this  reason  its  findings  are 
but  the  interpretation  of  the  facts  presented  in  the  schedules"; 
that  "the  number  of  schedules  returned,  while  larger  than  in  any 
similar  investigation  made  heretofore,  is  still  too  small  to  postu- 
late definite  conclusions."  But  there  is  need  of  insisting  on  the 
very  general  and  unfmal  nature  of  such  reports  as  that  of  this 
year  and  last,  because  the  standard  set  for  New  York  by  the 
committee  has  been  widely  received  as  a  definite  standard  to  be 
accepted  without  further  inquiry.  The  figures  of  the  New  York 
committee  have  even  been  incorporated  in  the  most  recent  book 
on  economics,  from  a  trusted  university  department,  having  been 
accepted  there  as  a  standard  for  the  average  American  city !  Times 
have  changed,  when  academic  scholars  accept  as  established  stan- 
dards the  tentative  conclusions  of  a  small  number  of  social 
workers ;  but  if  this  change  has  come,  it  is  all  the  more  important 
for  us  to  be  accurate  in  method  and  conservative  in  statement. 

In  conclusion,  if  there  can  be  no  agreement  as  to  the  accuracy  of 
the  standards  proposed  for  New  York  and  Buffalo,  all  will  agree 
that  one  point  has  been  established  without  question,  namely, 
that  the  average  wage  of  unskilled  labor  in  these  two  cities 
is  far  below  the  income  necessary  to  provide  what  any  one  of  us 
could  call  a  minimum  standard  of  living.  Such  a  conclusion, 
together  with  a  knowledge  of  the  methods  and  results  of  these 
studies,  emphasizes  the  importance  of  a  more  thorough  investiga- 
tion of  the  whole  subject,  extending  over  a  far  larger  number  of 
families,  and  through  a  period  of  at  least  twelve  months. 


317 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


TABLE  131.— ONE  HUNDRED  BUFFALO  FAMILIES.  EXPENDITURES 
FOR  PRINCIPAL  ITEMS  OF  THE  BUDGET.  AVERAGES  AND 
PERCENTAGES.— BY  NATIONALITY. 


25  Families, 
Italian. 

25  Families, 
Polish. 

50  Families 
Various. 

Total,  100 
Families.  All 
Nationalities. 

$578.08 
$564.77 

$603.59 
$678.18 

$609.91 
$643.43 

$600.37 
$632.45 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Average. 

cent* 

Average. 

cent.* 

Average. 

cent.* 

Average. 

cent.* 

$88.52 

15-7 

$90.24 

13-3 

$I02.l8 

15.8 

$95.78 

I5-I 

Fuel  and  light  

29.88 

5-3 

38.66 

5-7 

39.IO 

6. 

36-93 

5-8 

5-93 

I. 

5.IO 

•7 

8.15 

1.4 

6.83 

I. 

4-52 

.8 

26.94 

4- 

23-37 

3-6 

19.58 

31 

265.23 

47- 

335-23 

49-4 

298.16 

46.3 

299.20 

47. 

Clothing  

127.85 

22.6 

114.91 

17- 

112.59 

i7-5 

117.23 

18.5 

Health  

8.86 

i-5 

IS-70 

2-3 

17.63 

2.7 

14.96 

2-3 

*3-56 

2.4 

19.81 

3- 

II.98 

1.8 

14.83 

2-3 

Recreation  and  amuse- 

4-63 

.8 

4.90 

•7 

3-03 

•4 

3-9° 

.6 

Education  and  reading 

2.50 

•4 

8.58 

1.2 

6.72 

1. 

6.13 

•9 

Taxes,  dues,  and  con- 

tributions  

5-52 

•9 

9-3° 

i-3 

8.11 

1.4 

7.76 

1.2 

7.14 

1.2 

7.87 

1.1 

15.60 

2.4 

n-55 

1.8 

3-5 

4-3 

3-7 

3-8 

Food  expenditure  per 

20|C 

2i£c 

2ljc 

day  per  unit  

22c. 

Number  of  rooms  

3-3 

3-8 

4-7 

4.1 

Percentage  of  families 

4% 

12% 

4% 

6% 

Percentage  reporting 

purchase  of  news- 

48% 

76% 

74% 

68% 

Percentage  reporting 

38% 

gj^use  of  public  library 

36% 

48% 

34% 

*  Percentage  of  total  expenditure. 


318 


APPENDIX  VI 
Report  on  Nutrition  Investigation 

From  Data  Collected  by  the  Special  Committee  on  Stan- 
dard of  Living 

By  Frank  P.  Underhill,  Ph.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL  CHEMISTRY,  SHEFFIELD  LABORATORY    OF  PHYSIOLOGICAL 
CHEMISTRY,  YALE  UNIVERSITY 


NEW  YORK  CITY,  1907 

The  present  investigation  was  primarily  undertaken  with  a  view 
to  ascertaining  the  cost  of  living  in  New  York  City  among  various 
representative  classes  of  people.  Subsequently  there  arose  the 
query  whether  some  indication  might  be  obtained  concerning 
the  nutritive  condition  of  these  classes  of  people  as  judged  from 
the  quantities  and  kinds  of  food  materials  bought.  In  the  follow- 
ing pages  this  subject  is  discussed. 

In  any  determination  of  the  nutritive  condition  of  man  several 
methods  of  procedure  are  open  to  the  investigator.  To  the  one 
desiring  exact  data  the  estimation  and  analysis  of  the  body 
ingesta  and  egesta  are  essential.  On  the  other  hand,  where 
merely  the  amount  and  kind  of  food  consumed  is  desired,  a  de- 
termination of  the  amount  of  food  consumed  is  computed  by  the 
difference  between  the  food  bought  and  the  waste.  The  food 
values  may  be  ascertained  by  actual  analysis  of  food  samples 
or  may  be  calculated  from  tables  issued  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Ag- 
riculture (Bulletin  28,  Revised  Edition,  1899).  Many  such  meta- 
bolism experiments  have  been  carried  out  in  recent  years  by  the 
department  named. 

In  the  present  investigation  the  method  employed  has  been 
to  calculate  the  food  values  of  food  materials  bought  by  the  various 
classes  of  people  for  a  period  of  a  week.  The  data  obtained  were 
collected  from  grocery  and  meat  books  of  the  family,  from  account 
books  kept  by  the  housewife,  and  finally  from  estimations  by  the 
family  of  the  various  staple  articles  bought.  It  is  at  once  apparent 
that  from  such  data  results  of  any  scientific  value  cannot  be 

319 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


obtained,  and  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  there  has  been 
no  intention  of  drawing  any  conclusions  the  basis  of  which  would 
necessitate  exactness.  The  most  that  can  be  hoped  for  from  such 
an  investigation  is  merely  the  determination,  in  a  most  general 
way,  whether  the  various  classes  are  buying  food  of  the  amount 
and  kind  to  keep  them  in  bodily  health  and  vigor.  Even  the 
question  of  waste  cannot  be  entered  into,  although  this  item 
is  probably  small  judging  from  dietary  studies  made  in  the  same 
city  by  Atwater  and  Woods  (Bulletin  46,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri- 
culture). The  results  presented  here  then  are  calculated  upon 
the  food  bought,  and  the  values  given  were  computed  from 
analyses  of  food  materials  made  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricul- 
ture (Bulletin  28,  Revised  Edition)  upon  the  materials  as  pur- 
chased. 

One  hundred  representative  families,  preferably  those  with 
two  or  more  children,  and  with  various  earning  powers,  have  been 
chosen  from  among  the  various  nationalities  (Italians,  Bohemians, 
Negroes,  Russians,  Austrians,  Hungarians,  Americans,  English, 
Dutch,  Germans,  Irish,  and  Swedes)  in  New  York  City.  The 
amount  of  food  (and  the  various  components  comprising  that 
food)  bought  by  the  family,  together  with  the  cost,  has  been 
reduced  to  terms  of  per  man  per  day,  upon  the  assumption  that 
women  and  children  eat  less  than  a  man.  This  reduction  has 
been  made  possible  by  the  employment  of  standard  factors 
adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  (see  Bulletin  46,  page  6). 

The  question  whether  a  person  is  eating  sufficient  food  is  a 
difficult  one.  According  to  the  so-called  dietary  standards,  a  man 
of  70  kilos  body-weight  at  moderate  muscular  work  needs  125 
grams  protein  and  enough  of  fats  and  carbo-hydrates  to  furnish 
3000  to  3500  calories  per  day.  Other  standards  call  for  118 
grams  protein  and  2800  calories.  Indeed,  the  older  standards 
vary  from  100  to  150  grams  protein  with  a  fuel  value  of  from 
2500  to  7000,  the  variations  depending  upon  body-weight,  habit, 
and  occupation.  It  is  evident  that  a  man  engaged  in  strenuous 
muscular  work  needs  more  energy-yielding  food  than  one  whose 
labor  calls  for  less  muscular  activity.  Opinions  vary  somewhat 
with  regard  to  the  relative  amounts  of  fat  and  carbo-hydrate 
that  should  be  eaten  to  supply  this  energy.    To  sum  up  the 

320 


REPORT  ON  NUTRITION  INVESTIGATION 


question,  the  consensus  of  opinion  is  in  favor  of  a  preponderance 
of  carbo-hydrate  material.  Fat  has  twice  the  potential  energy 
of  carbo-hydrate,  but  for  two  reasons  it  is  unwise  to  obtain  the 
greater  proportion  of  energy  from  that  source.  In  the  first  place, 
fat  costs  more  than  carbo-hydrate;  and,  secondly,  it  is  uneco- 
nomical from  a  physiological  standpoint,  inasmuch  as  it  is  very 
difficult  of  digestion  when  compared  with  carbo-hydrate.  For 
a  man  of  average  weight,  performing  moderate  muscular  work, 
from  50  to  60  grams  of  fat  and  from  400  to  500  grams  of  carbo- 
hydrate are  not  far  from  the  right  proportions  from  the  viewpoint 
of  physiological  economy. 

The  amount  of  protein  necessary  is  a  question  upon  which  there 
exist  two  opinions.  In  the  first  place,  the  data  given  above  are 
derived  from  observations  made  upon  man  concerning  the  actual 
quantities  he  is  in  the  habit  of  eating,  not  how  much  he  really 
needs.  Within  recent  years  the  extensive  experiments  of  Chit- 
tenden have  shown  that  the  protein  intake  may  be  diminished 
by  half  that  usually  considered  necessary,  with  a  greatly  decreased 
calorific  value,  and  man  still  maintain  health  and  vigor  and  perform 
his  accustomed  duties.  Some  of  the  difficulties  of  deciding  the 
query  whether  a  man  is  eating  sufficient  are  at  once  obvious  from 
the  above  considerations,  and  to  attempt  to  do  so  in  more  than 
a  most  general  way  is  to  open  the  way  for  criticism,  and  justly. 
Accordingly,  when  in  the  present  discussion  the  data  obtained 
have  been  divided  into  two  classes,  representing  (1)  families 
well  nourished,  and  (2)  those  poorly  nourished,  it  has  been  done 
by  comparison  with  the  older  dietary  standards  having  a  range  for 
protein  from  100  to  150  grams,  of  fat  from  50  to  70  grams,  of 
carbo-hydrate  from  350  to  600  grams,  and  a  fuel  value  of  from 
2500  to  7000  calories.  The  division  cannot  be  hard  and  fast, 
especially  when  the  figures  given  represent  materials  purchased, 
not  necessarily  eaten;  and  account  must  also  be  taken  of  the 
digestibility — or,  better,  availability — of  the  foods,  together  with 
another  important  factor,  namely,  absorbability.  Inasmuch  as 
the  calculations  presented  have  been  made  upon  the  materials 
as  purchased,  not  ready  to  eat,  consideration  as  to  waste,  etc., 
is  unnecessary. 

Comparison  between  the  amounts  spent  for  food  by  well 
21  321 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


nourished  and  poorly  nourished  families  indicates  that  in  general 
when  less  than  22  cents  per  man  per  day  is  spent  for  food  the 
nourishment  derived  is  insufficient,  and  when  more  than  22  cents 
per  man  per  day  is  expended  the  family  is  well  nourished.  But 
the  latter  statement  does  not  hold  so  well  as  the  former.  An- 
other point  of  interest  is  the  relatively  large  quantities  of  fat 
bought  by  both  classes,  which  is  uneconomical  both  financially 
and  physiologically. 

Classified  according  to  nationality,  it  has  been  found  that  of  the 
Italian  families  (19)  represented,  89  per  cent,  are  listed  in  the 
class  of  those  well  nourished;  of  the  Bohemian  (5),  40  per  cent.; 
of  the  negroes  (5),  60  per  cent.;  of  the  Russian  (19),  33  per  cent.; 
of  the  American  (25),  57  per  cent.;  of  the  Irish  (9), 77  per  cent.; 
of  German  (6),  86  per  cent.;  while  Austrian  (2),  Hungarian  (1), 
English  (3),  Dutch  (1),  and  Swedish  (2)  were  all  well  nourished. 
The  Italians  and  Dutch  obtained  their  protein  largely  from 
the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  Bohemians,  Negroes,  Americans, 
English,  Irish,  and  Swedes  obtained  their  protein  about  equally 
from  animal  and  vegetable  sources.  The  Russians,  Austrians, 
Hungarians,  and  Germans  preferred  protein  from  the  animal 
kingdom.  To  a  greater  extent  than  the  other  nationalities,  the 
Italians  obtained  their  energy  from  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

The  explanation  of  the  failure  of  some  of  the  above  classes  of 
people  to  live  well  is  not  so  much  a  question  of  ability  to  purchase 
nourishing  food  at  the  price  given  (22  cents  per  man  per  day) 
as  of  injudicious  buying.  For  example,  3  pounds  of  butter  per 
week  at  30  cents  per  pound  is  extravagance  when  this  amount 
represents  13  per  cent,  of  the  total  spent  for  food.  The  item  of 
beer,  wine,  pickles,  etc.,  used  at  table  is  also  a  factor  of  considerable 
importance  in  this  connection.  For  instance,  to  cite  a  specific 
case,  in  one  family,  out  of  a  total  of  $6.17  spent  for  food,  $1.83 
was  expended  for  beer,  wine,  and  pickles — about  30  per  cent. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  majority  of  failures  does  not  appear  to  be 
due  to  the  above  causes,  but  to  an  inability  to  purchase  food 
at  less  than  22  cents  in  sufficient  amount  and  variety;  and  in 
nutrition,  variety  of  food  plays  almost  as  important  a  role  as 
does  sufficiency. 

The  following  schedules  are  printed  as  an  illustration  of  the 
method  employed  in  the  calculation  of  nutritive  values: 

322 


REPORT  ON  NUTRITION  INVESTIGATION 
SCHEDULE  NO.  x. 

Meals 

i  man  21 

i  woman  (21  X  0.8)  17 

1  child  (21  X  0.5)  10 

2  children  (21  X  0.4)  *7 


Equivalent  to  1  man  for  22  days. 
4  lbs.  beef  at  $0.48 


Food. 


salt. 

ham  

chicken . 

fish  

butter. . 


4  " 
1  lb. 
1  " 
1  " 
1  " 

3  lbs.  eggs  

14  "  milk  

1  lb.  milk  (cond.), 


at  $0.48 

12 

"  .28 

4 

"  .16 

1 

"  -14 

1 

"  -05 

2 

«  .27 

5 

"  .25 

1 

"  .70 

"  .10 

2 

$2.43 

1 

65 


lbs.  bread  at  $0.60 


"  rolls  

lb.  crackers  

"  flour  

lbs.  rolled  oats  

"  potatoes  

lb.  onions  

\   "  string  beans  

I  "  dried  peas  

lbs.  canned  tomatoes. 

lb.  apples  

1  "tea  

3^  lbs.  sugar  

\  lb.  molasses  

"  beer,  pickles  


•35 
.10 

•o5 
.10 
.16 
•OS 
.05 
.05 
.08 

•OS 
.18 

•i7 

•03 
•30 


SCHEDULE  No.  2. 


$2.32 


Kind  of  Food. 


Weights  and  Fuel  Value  Per  Man  per  Day. 


Food 
Material 
(Grams). 


Protein. 
(Grams). 


Fat 
(Grams). 


Carbo- 
hydrates 
(Grams). 


Fuel  Value. 
(Calories.) 


Cost. 


Beef,  veal,  mutton... 
Pork,  ham,  bacon,  etc 

Poultry  

Fish,  etc  

Eggs  

Butter,  lard  

Cheese  

Milk  

Total  animal  food  . . . 

Bread,  cake,  etc  

Flour,  cereals  

Vegetables  

Fruits  

Tea,  coffee,  etc  

Sugar,  molasses  

Liquors  

Total  vegetable  food . 

Total  food  


158 
20 
20 
20 

64 
20 

3i3 


32 
3 
3 
1 
8 


16 
10 

2 

"e 
17 

14 


221 
108 
34 

8 
90 
158 

272 


615 

337 
60 
180 


74 


59 

30 
8 

5 


65 

7 

3 


$0.11 


185 
41 
26 
2 

72 


94o 
232 

134 
10 

297 


671 


43 


326 


1613 


$0.10 


1286 


75 


337 


2504 


$0.21 


323 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


BUFFALO,  1908 

In  the  course  of  an  investigation  similar  to  that  carried  on 
in  New  York  City  to  determine  the  cost  of  living  in  the  city  of 
Buffalo  among  several  representative  classes  of  people,  the  ques- 
tion arose  here  also  as  to  the  nutritive  condition  of  the  subjects 
judged  by  the  quantity  and  kind  of  food  bought.  Estimations 
of  the  cost  and  quantity  of  food  bought  for  a  period  of  a  year 
have  been  collected.  From  50  such  schedules  an  endeavor  has 
been  made  to  divide  the  families  thus  represented  into  those 
receiving  sufficient  nutriment  and  those  whose  nourishment  is 
insufficient. 

As  in  the  report  on  the  cases  selected  in  New  York  City,  the 
conclusions  herein  drawn  should  not  be  regarded  as  exact; 
their  purpose  is  merely  to  serve  as  an  indication  of  nutritive 
condition.  Nevertheless,  in  a  very  general  way,  the  data  sub- 
mitted may  be  accepted  as  being  not  far  from  the  true  condition. 
The  results  were  computed  from  the  food  bought,  and  the  values 
were  calculated  from  the  analyses  of  food  materials  made  by  the 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  (Bull.  28,  Revised  1899)  upon  the 
materials  as  purchased. 

Fifty  typical  families,  containing  two  or  more  children,  were 
selected  for  observation,  of  which  number  thirty  fall  into  a  group 
designated  "General,"  with  reference  to  nationality.  The  re- 
maining twenty  were  equally  divided  between  Italian  and  Polish 
families.  The  amount  of  food  (and  the  components  of  that  food) 
bought  by  the  family,  together  with  the  cost,  have  been  reduced 
to  terms  of  one  man  per  day,  according  to  the  standard  factors 
adopted  by  the  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  (Bull.  46,  page  6). 

The  task  of  deciding  whether  a  person  is  receiving  sufficient 
food  is  not  easy,  owing  to  the  many  standards  upheld  by  the 
various  schools  of  nutrition.  However,  if  the  average  standard 
generally  accepted  is  adopted,  there  need  be  no  hesitation  in  the 
acceptance  of  the  condition  of  sufficient  nourishment.  A  person 
at  moderate  muscular  work,  according  to  this  standard,  consumes 
100  to  125  grams  protein,  50  to  70  grams  fat,  350  to  600  grams 
carbo-hydrate,  with  fuel  value  ranging  from  3000  to  7000  calories 
per  day.  Taking  these  figures  as  a  criterion,  the  results  obtained 

324 


REPORT  ON  NUTRITION  INVESTIGATION 

in  the  present  investigation  may  be  divided  into  two  groups: 
(i)  representing  families  buying  sufficient  food,  (2)  representing 
families  buying  insufficient  food. 

A  general  analysis  of  the  data  obtained  follows. 

It  was  found  that  in  general,  when  less  than  21  cents  is  spent 
for  food  per  man  per  day,  the  nourishment  derived  is  insufficient, 
and  in  general  when  more  than  this  sum  is  spent  the  family  is  well 
nourished.  This  relation  between  food  value  and  cost  holds 
equally  well  for  all  three  classes  of  families  represented. 

Reduced  to  terms  of  percentage,  of  those  families  spending  21 
cents  or  more  for  food  per  man  per  day,  75  per  cent,  received 
sufficient  nourishment;  and  with  this  sum  25  per  cent,  had 
insufficient  food.  Of  those  families  who  spent  less  than  21  cents 
per  man  per  day  for  food,  16  per  cent,  were  well  fed,  84  per  cent, 
were  not.  In  the  same  group  of  those  who  spent  22  cents  or 
more  per  man  per  day,  85  per  cent,  were  well  nourished  and  1 5 
per  cent,  bought  food  insufficient  for  health,  vigor,  and  work. 

Turning  to  the  Italian  group,  86  per  cent,  of  those  spending 
21  cents  or  more  for  food  per  man  per  day  were  well  nourished, 
and  14  per  cent,  were  not.  No  family  spending  less  than  21  cents 
per  man  per  day  was  well  nourished. 

Of  the  Polish  families,  86  per  cent,  were  well  nourished  when 
21  cents  or  more  were  spent  and  14  per  cent,  were  poorly  nourished. 
Thirty-three  per  cent,  of  those  well  nourished  spent  less  than 
21  cents  per  man  per  day. 

The  conditions  existing  in  the  Italian  and  Polish  families  give 
to  these  groups  a  rather  large  advantage  over  the  "general" 
group.  In  the  "general"  group  of  those  spending  21  cents 
or  more  per  man  per  day  75  per  cent,  were  well  nourished,  while 
und^r  similar  conditions  the  Italian  and  Polish  groups  contained 
86  per  cent. 

The  general  conclusion  may  therefore  be  drawn  that  for  21 
cents  per  man  per  day  sufficient  nourishment  may  be  bought  in  the 
city  of  Buffalo  to  keep  a  man  in  bodily  health  and  vigor  at  moderate 
muscular  work. 

No  definite  relation  appears  to  exist  between  the  purchase 
of  a  preponderance  of  animal  or  vegetable  food  and  an  ability 
to  live  at  a  low  figure. 

325 


APPENDIX  VII 


A  Workingman's  Budget. — F.  Le  Play 

Translated  by  Louise  Charvet 


A  Type-setter  of  Brussels,  Belgium,  Working  by  the  Day 
under  the  System  of  Indeterminate  Engagements 


FROM     INFORMATION    GATHERED    ON   THE   SPOT,    IN     NOVEMBER,  1857, 

BY  M.  J.  DAUBY 


PRELIMINARY  STATEMENTS 

Defining  the  Condition  of  the  Different  Members  of  the  Family. 
Description  of  the  Place,  of  the  Industrial  Organization, 
and  of  the  Family. 

i.  LAND,  INDUSTRY,  AND  POPULATION. 

The  family  of  the  type-setter  lives  in  Louvain,  in  the  commune 
of  St.  Jean-ten-Noode,  one  of  the  most  important  suburbs  of  Brus- 
sels. This  commune,  situated  for  the  most  part  in  a  valley,  ex- 
tends around  the  capital,  from  the  Leopold  district  to  the  river 
Senne,  a  distance  of  one  and  a  half  miles. 

During  the  past  few  years  the  commune  of  St.  Jean-ten-Noode 
has  had  a  remarkable  growth.  Its  population  was  1340  in  1826, 
5000  in  1836,  14,850  in  1846,  17,700  in  1856.  To-day  it  has  a 
population  of  more  than  18,000,  in  spite  of  the  loss  of  a  district 
comprising  about  350  acres  which  was  annexed  to  Brussels,  and 
which  forms  now  the  Leopold  district,  with  5000  inhabitants. 

The  commune  now  covers  250  acres;  it  has  35  streets,  and  27 
courts  or  alleys  inhabited  mostly  by  the  working  class.  There 
are  2600  houses  constructed  of  stone.  In  October,  1846,  when 
the  census  was  taken,  St.  Jean-ten-Noode  had  120  vacant  houses 
and  2283  houses  that  were  occupied.  The  2283  houses  had  13,517 
rooms  occupied  by  3782  families.    Of  this  number,  808  families 

*  "  Les  Ouvriers  Europeens."    Vol.  V,  ch.  Ill,  p.  103. 
326 


a  workingman's  budget 


had  one  room  each,  983  had  two  rooms  each,  and  1991  had  three 
rooms  and  more. 

The  family  of  the  workman  who  is  the  subject  of  this  mono- 
graph lives  in  a  court  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  town.  This 
court  is  remarkable  for  being  well-kept,  and  is  inhabited  by  an 
exceptionally  good  class  of  people.  On  the  left  side  are  large 
gardens  with  villas.  The  houses  on  the  right  side  are  inhabited  by 
well-to-do  workmen,  upper-class  clerks,  and  men  of  independent 
means. 

The  economic  activities  of  St.  Jean-ten-Noode  are  at  the  same 
time  agricultural,  industrial,  and  commercial.  It  has  several 
important  printing  establishments,  and  about  one  hundred  of  the 
employees  have  their  homes  there.  Brussels  with  its  suburbs 
includes  among  its  inhabitants  about  700  printers,  500  of  whom 
are  compositors  and  200  pressmen. 

Almost  all  of  them  belong  to  societies  whose  objects  are  the 
maintenance  of  wages,  mutual  benefits,  and  the  promotion  of 
thrift.  The  principle  of  a  standard  invariable  wage  has  been  in 
force  for  a  long  time.  However,  some  changes  have  lately  been 
made.  There  are  both  piece-workers  and  day  workers.  The 
latter  generally  have  steadier  work  and  better  pay.  Although 
the  relation  between  employer  and  employee  is  based  on  the 
system  of  indeterminate  engagements,  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
workmen  employed  for  many  years  by  the  same  master.  The 
workman  described  here  has  been  with  the  same  employer  for 
seventeen  years. 


2.  COMPOSITION  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

The  family  consists  of  husband,  wife,  and  four  children,  viz.: 

John  Francis  D.,  head  of  the  family,  married  for 

15  years,  born  at  Brussels  34  years  old 

Katherine  B.,  his  wife,  born  at  Brussels  35  " 

Henry  Octavius  D.,  their  first  son,  born  at  Brus- 
sels 14      "  " 

Armand  Constant  D.,  second  son,  born  at  Brus- 
sels 12      "  " 

Adolphe  Joseph  D.,  third  son,  born  at  Brussels,  ioj  "  " 
Antoinette  Constance  D.,  their  daughter,  born  at 

St.  Jean-ten-Noode   1   year  old 

327 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


The  father  and  mother  and  one  of  the  brothers  of  the  workman 
are  still  living.  The  father  is  a  shoemaker  in  the  same  town. 
Though  65  years  of  age,  he  is  in  perfect  health  and  is  able  almost 
entirely  to  support  himself  and  his  wife,  who  is  thrifty.  The 
brother  is  a  type-setter  and  is  employed  in  the  same  shop  as  the 
workman.  He  lives  with  his  parents,  whom  he  helps  a  little.  The 
wife's  father  has  been  dead  ten  years;  her  mother  lives  in  Louvain 
with  one  of  her  sons.  The  mother  has  an  income  from  a  house 
which  her  children  agreed  to  leave  to  her.  The  wife  has  another 
brother  and  two  sisters,  who  are  all  married  and  who  support 
themselves. 

3.  RELIGION  AND  MORAL  HABITS. 

Our  workman  and  his  wife  were  born  of  Catholic  parents.  He 
had  very  little  religious  instruction,  because  as  he  began  to  work 
at  9  years  of  age,  it  was  difficult  for  him  to  find  time  to  learn  the 
catechism.  The  hard  school  of  adversity  and  of  work  inculcated 
moral  and  religious  feelings  which  he  never  lost.  Every  Sunday 
he  goes  to  church  with  his  sons,  who  consider  it  a  real  punishment 
when  they  cannot  accompany  him.  In  fine  weather  they  take  a 
short  walk  after  the  service.  The  father  takes  this  occasion  to 
impress  his  children  with  the  greatness  of  the  works  of  the  Creator, 
telling  them  to  think  of  Him  in  all  their  actions.  At  the  same 
time  he  develops  their  minds  and  their  morals,  and  often  takes 
pleasure  in  testing  the  good  results  of  his  instruction. 

The  morning  and  evening  meals  always  begin  with  a  silent 
prayer  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Before  the  dinner,  which  they 
take  all  together,  the  children  by  turns  say  the  prayer  aloud. 
Not  one  would  willingly  give  up  his  turn,  but  when  one  is  absent 
and  the  usual  order  is  interrupted,  it  is  a  pleasant  sight  to  see  how 
anxious  the  others  are  to  take  his  place.  The  wife  seldom  takes 
any  part  in  this.  Since  the  birth  of  the  last  child,  she  has  been 
almost  entirely  absorbed  in  her  household  cares,  and  very  rarely 
attends  religious  services.  She  leaves  to  her  husband  the  moral 
training  of  her  sons,  which  she  considers  herself  incapable  of  under- 
taking. 

Our  workman  is  inclined  to  be  irritable.  However,  he  values 
the  esteem  of  his  employer  and  his  fellow-workmen;  he  is  anxious 

328 


a  workingman's  budget 


to  have  the  reputation  of  an  intelligent,  industrious,  and  honest 
man.  It  is  by  pursuing  incessantly  this  purpose  and  by  his  hard 
work  that  he  has  been  able  to  obtain  a  good  position,  which  he 
tries  every  day  to  improve. 

He  went  to  school  only  between  the  ages  of  7  and  9  years. 
However,  because  of  the  demands  of  his  profession  and  owing  to 
his  perseverance,  he  has  acquired  a  good  education.  He  devotes 
his  spare  time  to  the  study  of  literary,  economic,  and  social  matters. 
He  has  written  on  these  subjects  several  little  works  which  have 
been  well  received.  In  a  scientific  and  literary  competition  at 
Bruges  in  1853,  he  won  a  silver-gilt  medal  and  was  elected  corre- 
sponding member  of  a  scientific  society.  The  report  that  he  wrote 
on  that  occasion  received  the  honor  of  being  printed.  In  1856 
he  won  another  medal  at  the  exhibition  of  domestic  economy  at 
Brussels  for  the  manuscript  of  a  book  written  especially  for  the 
working  classes,  in  which  he  gives  advice  on  the  principal  points 
which  concern  the  physical  and  the  moral  welfare  of  the  workman 
under  the  three-fold  aspect  of  his  life — in  society,  in  the  shop, 
and  in  the  family.  This  work  received  the  approbation  of  several 
eminent  persons,  who  gave  our  workman  much  encouragement. 

He  occupies  a  high  position  among  his  companions.  On  several 
occasions,  when  the  interests  of  the  firm  were  at  stake,  he  has  been 
chosen  to  represent  it,  together  with  others  of  his  colleagues.  He 
has  also  taken  an  active  part  in  the  founding  of  the  associations 
of  which  he  is  a  member. 

The  three  boys  go  to  the  public  school  of  St.  Jean-ten-Noode. 
The  two  oldest  are  clever,  the  youngest  is  less  gifted.  As  to  the 
wife,  she  has  no  education  to  speak  of;  but  she  atones  for  this 
lack  by  a  great  deal  of  common  sense,  and  by  incessant  devotion 
to  her  family  duties. 

The  husband  and  wife  lead  a  regular  life,  in  perfect  accord,  and 
avoid  all  discussions  which  might  have  a  bad  influence  on  the 
children.  A  few  years  ago,  difficulties  connected  with  the  house- 
hold management,  together  with  his  extreme  youth,  nearly 
started  the  husband  on  a  downward  path.  But  he  was  not  slow 
in  recovering  his  better  self,  when  he  had  perceived  how  detri- 
mental his  conduct  was  to  the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of  the 
family. 

329 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


4.  PHYSICAL  TRAITS  AND  CARE  OF  THE  HEALTH. 

Our  workman  is  rather  tall,  5  feet  10  inches,  and  has  a  sanguine 
and  nervous  temperament.  Although  he  enjoys  good  health,  his 
constitution  is  not  strong,  and  for  this  reason,  he  was  exempted 
from  military  service.  Except  for  some  children's  diseases,  such 
as  measles  and  scarlet  fever,  he  has  had  only  one  serious  illness, 
typhus  fever,  which  a  few  months  after  his  marriage  proved  al- 
most fatal.  After  this  illness,  he  decided  to  join  a  mutual  benefit 
society,  of  which  he  has  been  a  member  for  nearly  14  years,  with- 
out having  received  pecuniary  assistance  except  for  14  days. 

The  wife  is  of  medium  height,  5  feet  4  inches,  has  a  good  consti- 
tution, and  a  phlegmatic  yet  cheerful  temperament.  At  the 
time  of  her  marriage  she  showed  a  tendency  to  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis, which  developed  two  years  later  and  made  her  an  invalid 
for  nine  months.  The  birth  of  a  child  served  to  restore  her  health 
and  to  enable  her  again  to  devote  herself  to  the  cares  of  her  house- 
hold, which  had  seriously  suffered  on  account  of  her  sickness. 
Since  then  she  has  had  no  serious  sickness  except  for  an  affliction 
of  the  eyes  which  lasted  a  few  weeks.  On  the  whole,  however, 
her  health  is  not  very  satisfactory.  It  seems  as  if  the  material 
cares  were  not  sufficiently  counterbalanced  by  intellectual  and 
moral  interests. 

The  oldest  child  has  had  the  various  infantile  diseases.  Like 
his  father,  he  had  an  attack  of  typhus  fever  complicated  by  a 
miliary  fever,  which  did  away  with  the  most  alarming  symptoms 
of  the  first  disease.  Since  his  recovery  his  eyes  have  been  weak 
and  he  has  had  quinsy.  He  is  now  recovering  from  the  last 
effects  of  his  illness.  For  five  or  six  years  the  second  child  had 
uninterruptedly  sickness  after  sickness.  These  were  of  such 
serious  character  that  his  life  was  despaired  of  twenty  times.  He 
was  almost  totally  blind  for  five  months;  at  four  years  of  age  he 
had  hardly  recovered  from  a  severe  attack  of  measles  when  he 
broke  his  leg.  Now  he  is  perfectly  well.  The  last  boy  has  a  robust 
constitution.  He  has  also  had  measles  and  typhoid  fever, 
both  very  severely.  His  temperament  is  like  his  mother's;  he 
has  little  ability,  but  an  honest  and  obliging  disposition.  The 
daughter,  who  is  only  one  year  old,  has  always  been  well.  Dur- 

330 


a  workingman's  budget 


ing  the  first  years  of  his  married  life  our  workman  was  under 
considerable  expense  for  medical  service.  However,  as  the  mem- 
bers of  the  family  have  been  in  better  health  since  that  time, 
the  yearly  medical  expense  can  be  estimated  at  about  20  francs, 
or  300  francs  for  the  past  fifteen  years,  including  the  monthly 
dues  to  the  workman's  association.  According  to  an  agreement 
with  the  physician  of  the  association,  since  1858,  our  workman, 
like  the  other  members  of  the  association,  has  received  medical 
service  for  six  francs  a  year,  medicines  not  included. 

5.  STANDING  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

Independently  of  the  easy  circumstances  which  a  high  salary 
and  industrious  habits  have  assured  the  family,  our  workman  has 
attained  a  distinguished  position  in  his  firm.  His  ability  and  good 
conduct  soon  induced  his  employer  to  give  him  the  management 
of  the  workshops  as  well  as  the  clerical  work,  which  is  rather 
complicated  because  of  the  numerous  details  involved  in  the 
special  line  of  work. 

Before  the  Belgian  Revolution  of  1830,  his  parents  as  a  result 
of  hard  work  were  in  easy  circumstances.  But  an  exaggerated 
patriotism  induced  our  workman's  father  perhaps  too  fully  to 
perform  the  military  duties  instituted  at  that  time.  As  a  result 
the  family  was  impoverished,  so  that  at  the  age  of  9  our  work- 
man was  obliged  to  leave  the  school  for  the  shop  in  order  to 
help  the  household,  which  at  14  years  of  age  he  supported  almost 
entirely. 

The  wife  comes  from  an  honorable  family  whose  interests  had 
been  greatly  injured  by  the  unwise  management  of  her  father  and 
by  many  domestic  troubles.  Several  members  of  the  family 
have  good  positions  as  notaries,  doctors,  and  merchants.  Our 
workman  is  the  only  one  in  his  family  who  has  kept  in  touch  with 
any  of  them.  Though  obliged  to  depend  entirely  on  his  work,  and 
in  spite  of  the  hard  times  he  has  gone  through,  he  has  never  asked 
aid  either  from  charitable  institutions  or  from  private  individuals. 
This  fact,  of  which  he  is  justly  very  proud,  has  greatly  helped 
him  to  retain  his  independence.  On  the  part  of  our  workman, 
who  is  gifted  with  fine  moral  qualities,  the  difference  of  condition 

331 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


between  employers  and  employees  creates  neither  hate  nor  envy, 
which  is  not  the  case  with  many  other  type-setters  of  Brussels. 


MEANS  OF  SUBSISTENCE  OF  THE  FAMILY 

6.  PROPERTY. 

(Furniture  and  Clothes  not  Included.) 

Real  Estate  o.oo  fr. 

The  family  does  not  own  any  real  estate,  and  has  no  income 
from  the  dwelling  which  is  a  part  of  the  inheritance  left  by  the 
wife's  father.  This  house  is  what  remains  from  a  former  prosper- 
ous time  and  the  widow  has  the  exclusive  use  of  it  until  her  death. 

Money  ■.  51.71  fr. 

This  sum,  deposited  in  the  Savings  Bank,  at  3%  interest, 
represents  wages  paid  for  clerical  work.  It  was  originally  100 
francs,  and  was  increased  to  160  francs,  interest  included.  Several 
family  expenses,  such  as  those  caused  by  the  first  communion  of 
two  of  the  children,  obliged  our  workman  to  break  into  it  several 
times.  On  the  other  hand,  the  hard  times  which  have  oppressed 
the  laboring  classes  for  several  years,  especially  the  high  price  of 
food,  have  not  yet  made  it  possible  for  him  to  make  good  the 
amount. 

Special  equipment  for  work  and  industry   66  fr. 

Tools. — Two  iron  composing  sticks,  10  fr.;  2  wooden  composing  sticks,  1  fr.; 
printers'  tweezers,  2.25  fr.;  1  copy  holder,  1  fr. ;  1  knife,  0.50  fr.;  total,  14.75  fr- 

Special  Books  and  Office  Supplies  Necessary  for  the  Correction  of  Proofs  at  Home 
and  for  Book-keeping. — 1  dictionary  of  the  French  Academy  with  supplement 
(bound),  40  fr.;  1  Flemish-French  dictionary,  5  fr.;  1  grammar,  0.75  fr.;  1  French 
Latin  grammar,  2  fr.;  1  table  of  French  verbs,  0.50  fr.;  ink-wells,  pens,  penholders, 
pencils,  ruler  and  paper,  3  fr.;  total,  51.25  fr. 

Total  value  of  property  1 17.71  fr. 

7.  SUBSIDIARY  CONTRIBUTIONS  TO  REAL  INCOME. 

The  only  assistance  received  by  the  family  is  the  free  tuition 
given  in  the  city  school  attended  by  the  three  boys  up  to  last 
August.    At  that  time  the  oldest,  havi  ng  won  the  highest  prize, 

332 


a  workingman's  budget 


had  to  leave,  according  to  the  rules  of  the  school.  The  other  two 
stayed  the  rest  of  the  year.  Had  they  been  in  a  private  school, 
the  cost  would  have  been  4  francs  a  month  for  each  child;  that  is, 
88  francs  for  the  two  children  for  the  school  year  of  1 1  months,  and 
28  francs  for  the  oldest  child  for  seven  months — in  all,  1 16  francs. 
To  that  must  be  added  15  francs,  the  cost  of  the  tuition  for  the 
oldest  boy,  who  for  3  months  attended  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 

In  the  course  of  the  year  1857  the  Government  gave  our  work- 
man 300  francs  to  help  him  publish  a  book  written  for  the  work- 
ing class.  Nearly  the  whole  amount  of  this  subsidy,  granted  in 
exchange  for  500  copies  of  this  work,  served  to  pay  the  publishing 
expenses.  Under  the  head  of  subventions  may  be  mentioned  books 
given  from  time  to  time  to  our  workman  by  his  employer  and  by 
the  authors,  as  well  as  some  pieces  of  bric-a-brac  presented  by  his 
fellow-workmen  on  his  patron  saint's  day.  These  may  be  found 
in  the  list  of  the  pieces  of  furniture  under  Section  10.  Their 
annual  value  amounts  to  20  or  25  francs. 

8.  WORK  AND  INDUSTRY. 

The  Type-setter  s  Work. — The  work  is  done  by  the  hour  in  the 
shop,  as  well  as  at  home,  for  an  employer.  It  consists  of  type- 
setting, paging,  proof-reading,  book-keeping,  and  the  management 
of  the  shop  where  the  type-setters  work.  He  is  paid  half  a  franc 
an  hour  and  works  on  an  average  of  eleven  hours  a  day.  When 
business  is  not  pressing,  he  finishes  work  on  Monday  at  4  p.  m.,  and 
he  works  regularly  a  few  hours  at  home  on  Sunday.  The  shop  is 
closed  on  Sunday  and  holidays,  except  three  or  four  times  a  year 
when  there  is  a  rush  of  business.  Wages  are  paid  very  regularly 
every  fortnight  on  Saturday  evening,  and  pay-day  is  never  an 
occasion  for  unnecessary  expense. 

The  Wife's  Work. — The  wife  devotes  all  her  time  to  household 
duties,  sewing,  repairing  and  washing  the  family  linen.  She  excels 
in  all  kinds  of  sewing.  Before  her  marriage  she  was  a  dress- 
maker and  was  at  the  head  of  the  last  dressmaking  establishment 
in  which  she  worked.  In  the  first  years  of  her  married  life  she 
worked  for  several  customers,  but  for  the  last  ten  years  household 
cares  have  kept  her  busy.    She  is  active  and  industrious,  and  her 

333 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


home  is  pointed  to  as  a  model  of  cleanliness,  in  spite  of  the  work 
inevitably  occasioned  by  children. 

The  Children's  Work. — The  oldest  son  has  just  become  an  ap- 
prentice in  the  shop  where  his  father  works;  he  earns  ten  francs  a 
month.    The  other  children  do  no  work. 

Industries  Pursued  by  the  Family. — The  workman  has  the 
management  of  the  printing  shop.  In  case  of  pressure,  he  supple- 
ments his  wages  by  reading  proof  at  home,  which  may  add  about 
6.50  francs  a  fortnight  to  his  income.  The  wife's  chief  work  is 
the  sewing  and  washing  of  the  family  linen  and  clothes. 


MODE  OF  LIVING  OF  THE  FAMILY 

9.  FOOD  AND  MEALS. 

The  family  take  three  meals  a  day:  in  the  morning,  at  noon, 
and  in  the  evening.  During  the  summer  the  husband  has  a 
second  breakfast  in  the  shop  and  a  luncheon  at  half  past  four 
every  day.  The  breakfast  consists  invariably  of  coffee  with  or 
without  milk  and  bread  and  butter.  The  bread  is  of  the  first 
quality.  The  dinner  consists  of  meat  soup  or  vegetable  soup, 
potatoes  or  other  vegetables  according  to  the  season,  boiled  or 
roasted  beef  or  veal.  From  time  to  time,  poultry,  rabbit,  or 
dressed  pork  takes  the  place  of  other  meat.  Dinner  is  often  fol- 
lowed by  a  dessert  of  fruit:  nuts,  cherries,  apples,  pears,  apricots, 
grapes  (from  their  own  vines),  and  always  by  a  cup  of  coffee.  On 
Friday,  instead  of  meat,  fish  (cod,  herrings,  eels)  or  eggs  are 
served.    In  the  summer,  salads  of  different  sorts  are  the  main  food. 

When  the  children  return  from  school,  they  have  a  luncheon  of 
coffee  and  bread  with  the  mother.  The  husband's  luncheon  con- 
sists of  bread,  meat  or  cheese,  and  beer. 

The  supper  taken  on  our  workman's  return  from  the  shop 
consists  of  cold  meat  or  Holland  cheese  with  bread  and  butter  and 
beer,  or  more  often  coffee,  which  is  the  favorite  drink  of  the 
family.  They  live  well  and  lack  nothing  so  far  as  food  is  concerned. 
However,  except  on  New  Year's  Day,  or  on  some  great  occasion, 
no  wine  or  liquor  is  drunk  and  beer  is  drunk  but  rarely.  Away 

334 


a  workingman's  budget 


from  home,  our  workman  drinks  beer  in  moderate  quantity,  for 
example,  on  Sunday  or  in  some  of  the  meetings  of  the  societies 
of  which  he  is  a  member. 

The  family  do  not  buy  food  on  credit  as  most  workmen  do,  and 
in  consequence  they  buy  more  cheaply. 

10.  HOUSE,  FURNITURE,  AND  CLOTHING. 

The  family  have  lived  for  four  years  in  a  little  dwelling,  one  of 
the  walls  of  which  is  covered  with  a  vine  about  13  yards  in  length. 

This  house  consists  of  four  rooms,  two  of  which  are  on  the  first 
floor  and  two  on  the  second  floor,  of  a  cellar,  a  garret,  and  a  yard 
with  an  area  of  about  900  sq.  ft.  The  rooms  on  the  first  floor 
are  about  9  ft.  high,  those  on  the  next  floor  are  6  ft.  10  in.  high. 
The  average  height  of  the  garret  with  slanting  roof  is  about  7  ft. 
and  that  of  the  cellar  about  6  ft.  3  in. 

Though  the  rooms  are  rather  small,  the  dwelling  is  comfortable, 
and  the  workman  is  willing  to  make  all  the  sacrifices  compatible 
with  his  position  to  preserve  what  he  calls  "  his  luxury  and  quiet," 
for  he  has  occupied  many  lodgings  composed  of  sometimes  one 
large  room  and  sometimes  several  rooms  where  he  has  experienced 
all  sorts  of  discomforts. 

The  rent  is  18  francs  a  month  or  216  francs  a  year;  the  owner 
pays  the  taxes.  A  well,  used  by  several  families  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, is  near  the  house  and  furnishes  very  pure  water.  There  is 
no  cistern,  but  rain-water  is  caught  in  large  tubs. 

Except  for  some  articles  given  to  our  workman  by  his  comrades 
on  his  patron  saint's  day,  the  furniture  is  very  simple,  but  it  is 
well  cared  for.    It  may  be  valued  as  follows: 

Furniture  904.50  fr. 

I.  Beds  and  Bedding. — 2  bedsteads,  beechwood,  slats  and  crossbars  of  oak, 
35  fr.;  1  mattress,  woolen,  25  fr.;  1  mattress,  seaweed,  14  fr.;  3  mattresses,  straw, 
21  fr.;  1  bolster,  feathers,  8  fr. ;  3  pillows,  8  fr. ;  1  blanket,  woolen,  15  fr.;  3  blankets, 
cotton,  18  fr.;  1  cradle  with  bedding,  15  fr.;  total,  159  fr. 

II.  Living-room  Furniture  {ground-floor). — 1  bureau,  elm,  18  fr.;  1  table  with 
oil  cloth  and  cover,  10.50  fr.;  1  clock,  gilded  frame,  48  fr.;  2  vases,  china,  with 
artificial  flowers,  20  fr.;  2  large  frames  with  colored  pictures,  20  fr.;  4  small  frames, 
with  portraits,  8  f r. ;  1  frame,  reward  won  by  workman,  5  f r. ;  1  small  mirror,  3  f r. ; 
2  medallions,  plaster,  religious  subjects,  2  fr.;  2  statuettes,  Saxon  china,  9  fr.; 
1  St.  Joseph,  imitation  alabaster,  2  fr.;  6  chairs,  cherry,  20  fr.;  1  arm-chair,  beech, 


335 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


8  fr.;  i  jardiniere,  with  natural  flowers,  10  fr.;  i  screen,  i  fr.;  3  framed  medals, 
1  silver  gilt,  2  bronze,  30  fr.;  total,  214.50  fr. 

///.  Kitchen  Furniture. — 1  large  cupboard,  white  wood,  8  fr.;   1  table,  beech, 

5  fr.;  5  chairs  and  1  armchair,  beech,  straw-bottomed,  18  fr.;  1  child's  chair,  5  fr.; 
1  kitchen  stove,  with  pipe,  14  fr.;  1  statuette  (Gutenberg),  4  fr.;  1  bird  cage,  2  fr.; 
total,  56  fr. 

IV.  Workroom  Furniture. — 1  large  desk,  with  bookshelf,  28  fr.;  2  tables,  beech, 

6  fr.;  1  cupboard,  elm,  3  fr. ;  1  small  cupboard,  cherry,  5  fr. ;  1  small  stove,  with 
pipe,  7  fr.;  4  chairs,  beech,  straw-bottomed,  8  fr. ;  1  mirror,  1.50  fr. ;  toial,  58.50  fr. 

V.  Bedroom-  and  Attic  Furniture. — 1  small  table,  beech,  3  fr. ;  2  chairs,  beech, 
straw-bottomed,  4  fr.;  1  picture  of  Christ  in  frame,  2  fr.;  1  crucifix  and  several 
religious  pictures,  near  children's  bed,  1.50  fr.;  several  pieces  of  old  furniture  not  in 
use,  6  fr.;  total,  16.50  fr. 

VI.  Books. — Our  workman  owns  a  small  library  composed  of  about  300  books 
and  pamphlets.  Some  of  these,  which  he  helped  to  print  or  of  which  he  read  the 
proof,  he  owes  to  the  generosity  of  his  employer,  or  of  the  authors.  Others,  among 
which  are  several  scientific  and  literary  works,  he  bought  for  himself.  The  remain- 
ing 25  volumes  are  classical  works  given  as  school  prizes  to  the  children.  Ap- 
proximate value,  400  fr. 

Utensils. — In  sufficient  quantity  and  well  cared  for  235-25  fr- 

I.  For  the  Fire. — 2  fire  shovels,  1  fr.;  2  fire  hooks,  1.50  fr.;  1  grate,  1  fr.;  2 
coal  scuttles,  2  fr. ;  1  charcoal  basket,  .25  fr.;  total,  5.75  fr. 

II.  For  the  Table  and  the  Preparation  of  Food. — 1  glass  carafe  and  6  tumblers, 
10  fr.;  1  coffee  set  and  1  tea  set,  china,  25  fr.;  1  liquor  set  on  tin  stand,  15  fr.;  1 
pint  bottle  in  fine  gilded  ware,  5  fr. ;  6  plates,  6  fr.;  15  plates,  common  white  earthen- 
ware, 4.50  fr. ;  2  china  bowls,  2.50  fr.;  6  bowls,  white  earthenware,  1  fr. ;  1  salad 
bowl,  1  pepper  box  and  6  glasses,  2  fr.;  1  pot,  earthenware,  1.50  fr;  1  butter  dish 
and  2  earthenware  egg-cups,  1.50  fr. ;  5  vases,  varnished,  earthenware,  2.50  fr.; 
1  water  jug,  1  fr.;  6  spoons,  6  forks  and  1  ladle,  silver-plated,  25  fr. ;  1  ladle,  tin, 
1.25  fr.;  knives,  spoons  and  forks,  5  fr.;  pots  and  bottles,  4  fr.;  3  pails,  zinc,  n  fr., 
1  saucepan,  wrought  iron,  5  fr.;  1  frying  pan.  wrought  iron,  1.25  fr. ;  1  kettle  and  1 
copper  teakettle,  12  fr.;  1  coffee  pot  and  1  tin  teakettle,  5  fr.;  1  coffee  mill,  3  fr.; 
1  strainer,  tin,  1  fr. ;  1  market  basket,  tin,  3  fr. ;  1  basket,  tin,  2.50  fr. ;  1  basket, 
wicker,  1  fr. ;  2  vegetable  baskets,  2  fr. ;  other  small  articles,  1.50  fr. ;  total,  161  fr. 

III.  For  Cleaning  Purposes. — 2  big  brushes  and  2  brooms,  5  fr. ;  1  clothes 
brush  and  2  shoe  brushes,  2  fr.;  2  flatirons,  2  fr. ;  2  water  jugs,  1.50  fr.;  1  wash 
basin,  earthenware,  2  fr.;  3  razors,  with  accessories,  4.50  fr.;  1  shaving  mirror, 
1.50  fr.;  total,  18.50  fr. 

IV.  For  Various  Uses. — 1  astral  lamp,  20  fr.;  1  lamp,  copper,  5  fr. ;  2  candle- 
sticks, copper,  5  fr.;  1  large  barrel  for  catching  rain-water,  6  fr.;  2  small  barrels, 

7  fr.;  3  clothes  pegs,  2  fr. ;  1  tailor's  goose,  with  accessories,  3  fr.;  1  pair  snuffers 
and  1  extinguisher,  1  fr.;  small  articles,  1  fr.;  total,  50  fr. 

Household  linen  (in  good  order,  but  meager  supply)  81  fr. 

Linen. — 2  sheets,  linen,  12  fr.;  6  sheets,  cotton,  21  fr.;  12  sheets,  small,  for  chil- 
dren, 12  fr.;  2  napkins,  5  fr.;  5  window  curtains,  muslin,  15  fr.;  4  window  curtains, 
cotton,  4  fr.;  12  hand  towels,  8  fr.;  4  hand  towels,  hemp,  2ir.;  6  dusters  and  dish 
cloths,  2  fr.;  total,  81  fr. 

Clothing  730  fr. 

(Parents'  clothing  is  very  simple;  though  small  in  quantity,  is  in  good  condition.) 

Man's  Clothing  (317.50  fr.).    Of  the  style  worn  by  the  middle  class. 

I.  Sunday  Clothes. — 1  overcoat,  blue  cloth,  65  fr.;  1  frock  coat,  black  cloth, 

336 


a  workingman's  budget 


30  fr.;  1  vest,  black  satin,  12  fr.;  1  pair  trousers,  black  cloth,  18  fr.;  1  silk  hat, 
12  fr.;  1  scarf,  black  satin,  8  fr.;  1  pair  boots,  15  fr.;  total,  160  fr. 

II.  Everyday  Clothes. — 1  overcoat,  black  cloth,  25  fr.;  1  coat,  black  cloth, 
15  fr.;  1  pair  trousers,  woolen,  13  fr.;  1  pair  trousers,  woolen,  13  fr.;  1  pair  trousers, 
cotton,  3  fr.;  2  waistcoats,  woolen,  with  sleeves,  8  fr.;  2  work  blouses,  blue  linen, 
9  fr.;  6  shirts,  cotton  (2  of  good  quality),  18  fr.;  3  neckties,  cotton  and  linen,  1.50 
fr.;  1  necktie,  merino,  2  fr.;  2  pairs  knit  drawers,  cotton,  4  fr.;  2  knit  undershirts, 
cotton,  4  fr.;  2  pairs  stockings,  woolen,  4  fr.;  4  pairs  stockings,  cotton,  6  fr.;  1 
pair  boots,  10  fr.;  1  pair  slippers,  5  fr.;  1  cap,  2  fr.;  small  articles,  3  fr.;  total, 
132.50  fr. 

///.  Jewelry. — 1  watch,  silver,  25  fr. 

Wife's  Clothing  (171.50  fr.).    Like  that  of  her  class. 

/.  Sunday  Clothes. — 1  dress,  brown  woolen,  16  fr.;  1  shawl,  woolen,  15  fr.; 
1  dress  skirt,  muslin,  8.50  fr.;  1  waist,  black  silk,  6  fr.;  1  apron,  black  silk,  5  fr.; 

1  cloak,  black  silk,  6  fr.;  1  bonnet,  trimmed,  6  fr. ;  1  skirt,  white  dimity,  4  fr.; 
3  chemisettes,  fine  quality,  5  fr.;  6  handkerchiefs,  fine  linen,  4  fr.;  2  pairs  under- 
sleeves,  embroidered  muslin,  4  fr.;  3  pairs  stockings,  white,  5.50  fr.;  1  pair  shoes, 

5  fr.;  total,  90  fr. 

II.  Everyday  Clothes. — 1  skirt,  wool  and  cotton,  8  fr.;  1  skirt,  black  merino, 

2  fr.;  1  cloak,  cotton  goods,  3  fr.;  2  jackets,  cotton,  5  fr.;  2  aprons,  cotton,  3  fr.; 
1  apron,  blue  linen,  2  fr.;  1  cap,  black  tulle,  3.50  fr.;  4  night  caps,  4  fr.;  6  chemises, 
cotton,  15  fr.;  1  pair  stockings,  black  woolen,  3  fr.;  2  pairs  stockings,  cotton,  4  fr.; 

3  neckerchiefs,  3  fr.;  2  pairs  gloves,  2.50  fr.;  1  pair  shoes,  5  fr.;  1  pair  slippers, 
2.50  fr.;  total,  65.50  fr. 

III.  Jewelry. — 1  gold  ring,  7  fr.;  1  pin,  gold  enameled,  6  fr. ;  1  pair  earrings, 
3  fr.;  total,  16  fr. 

Children's  Clothing  (241.00  fr.).    Well  taken  care  of. 

/.  Clothes  of  the  Three  Boys. — 2  blouses,  black  velvet,  20  fr.;  1  blouse, 
black  merino,  6  fr.;  6  blouses,  cotton,  18  fr.;  2  coats,  black  cloth,  18  fr.;  2  coats, 
black  merino,  10  fr.;  3  pairs  trousers,  cloth,  18  fr.;  3  pairs  trousers,  cotton,  7  fr.; 
3  waistcoats,  woolen,  6  fr.;  6  caps,  cloth,  9  fr.;  9  shirts,  cotton,  17  fr.;  6  pairs 
stockings,  6  f r. ;  6  collars,  white  percale,  3  fr. ;  3  neckties,  cotton,  2  fr. ;  9  handker- 
chiefs, cotton,  4.50  fr.;  3  scarfs,  woolen,  3  fr.;  3  night  caps,  1.50  fr.;  6  pairs  of  boots 
and  shoes,  25  fr.;  total,  174  fr. 

II.  Girl's  Clothes. — 1  coat,  quilted  black  silk,  6  fr.;  5  dresses,  woolen,  20  fr.; 

6  slips,  white  dimity,  6  fr.;  6  chemises,  white  cotton,  4  fr.;  5  aprons,  white  muslin, 
5  f r. ;  2  hats,  silk,  8  f r. ;  3  caps,  trimmed,  4  f r. ;  6  caps,  white  percale,  3  f r. ;  3 
caps,  muslin,  3  fr.;  4  neckerchiefs,  2  fr.;  2  pairs  stockings,  woolen,  2  fr.;  4  pairs 
stockings,  cotton,  2.50  fr.;  1  pair  shoes,  cloth,  1.50  fr.;  total,  67  fr. 

Note. — A  great  part  of  the  children's  clothing  is  made  from  the  parents'  cast-off 
clothing,  and  is  generally  made  by  the  wife. 

Total  value  of  furniture  and  clothing 


11.  RECREATION. 

For  some  years  the  husband  and  wife  have  been  perfectly  con- 
tented with  such  family  recreations  as  might  be  within  their 
means.  In  the  summer  they  go  regularly  to  the  country  on  Sun- 
days and  holidays.  Sometimes  they  visit  one  of  the  towns  situ- 
ated on  the  railroad  in  the  neighborhood  of  Brussels,  such  as 
Vilvorde,  Baitsfort,  and  Ruisbrank.    It  is  a  great  pleasure  to 

337 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


the  children  to  return  by  train.  In  winter  the  family  generally 
stays  at  home  on  Sundays;  except  the  father,  who  goes  in  the 
evening  to  play  dominoes  with  some  of  his  friends  who  live  in  a 
neighboring  suburb  and  who  are  at  least  twice  as  old  as  he.  Some- 
times he  takes  his  family  to  the  opera,  vaudeville,  or  circus;  but 
more  often  to  musical  entertainments  arranged  by  members  of 
his  firm,  in  a  hall  rented  for  that  purpose.  These  are  real  family 
gatherings,  where  all  licentious  songs  are  strictly  forbidden.  At 
these  meetings  there  are  also  readings  on  subjects  of  general 
interest  to  the  working  classes  in  Belgium,  especially  to  the  type- 
setters, but  political  subjects  are  always  forbidden. 

The  family  derives  some  pleasure,  also,  from  its  intercourse  with 
relatives.  Each  family  event,  such  as  a  birth,  a  marriage,  or  a 
patron  saint's  day,  is  occasion  for  an  informal  dinner  party,  when 
the  sincerest  cordiality  reigns.  As  a  rule,  our  workman  goes  each 
year  to  Louvain  at  the  time  of  the  annual  fair,  to  visit  his  wife's 
relatives.  Sometimes  he  is  accompanied  by  his  wife  or  one  of  the 
children.  Two  or  three  of  these  relatives  return  the  visit  in 
September,  at  the  time  of  the  national  holiday,  which  is  celebrated 
with  a  certain  amount  of  pomp  at  Brussels. 

Among  recreations,  and  in  addition  to  the  annual  banquet 
which  most  of  the  type-setters  attend,  must  be  mentioned  a  dinner 
given  yearly  by  our  workman  to  his  friends,  on  the  occasion  of 
his  patron  saint's  day  (St.  Joseph).  This  dinner  is  given  in  return 
for  a  present  made  him  by  his  friends.  But  his  greatest  pleasure 
is  derived  from  study,  to  which  he  would  willingly  devote  all  his 
spare  time,  were  it  not  for  the  demands  of  health,  and  his  family's 
need  of  diversion.  It  is  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  he  can 
be  torn  from  his  literary  work  for  any  kind  of  pleasure.  By  such 
inclination,  rather  than  by  habits  of  thrift,  does  he  resemble  the 
middle  class. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  FAMILY 

12.  PRINCIPAL  EVENTS  IN  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

Our  workman  was  born  at  Brussels  in  1824.  His  father,  who 
was  a  bootmaker,  had  many  workmen  under  him  and  did  a  good 

333 


a  workingman's  budget 


business.  He  was  in  easy  circumstances,  owing  chiefly  to  hard 
work,  but  this  condition  was  greatly  changed  by  the  Belgian 
Revolution  of  1830,  which  took  away  the  majority  of  his  customers, 
and  obliged  him  to  perform  civic  duties,  to  which  he  sacrificed 
personal  interests.  Two  years  later  his  family  was  reduced  to  a 
state  of  great  poverty.  In  1833  they  were  in  such  want  that  the 
son,  then  only  9  years  of  age,  was  obliged  suddenly  to  leave 
school,  where  he  had  learned  only  the  rudiments  of  reading  and 
writing,  and  to  work  as  an  apprentice  in  one  of  the  city  book 
stores.  Here  he  ran  errands,  and  later  made  newspaper  wrappers. 
After  fifteen  months  of  stubborn  work,  he  succeeded  in  acquiring 
a  fairly  good  elementary  education;  but  the  small  wages  he 
earned  (7  francs  a  month)  induced  his  mother  to  seek  more 
lucrative  employment  for  him.  A  new  daily  paper  had  just  been 
established  in  Brussels;  by  it  he  was  engaged  as  an  apprentice 
at  type-setting  and  at  gathering  the  sheets  as  they  came  from  the 
press.  On  account  of  his  double  duties  he  was  obliged  to  work 
eighteen  hours  a  day,  interrupted  only  by  the  running  of  errands. 
Even  in  winter  he  had  to  be  in  the  shop  from  5  a.  m.  to  i  i  p.  m. 
And  on  Sunday  this  murderous  work,  for  which  he  received  five 
francs  a  week,  was  not  interrupted.  At  the  end  of  a  year,  finding 
no  improvement  in  his  position,  he  decided  to  make  a  change,  in 
spite  of  having  acquired  but  little  skill  in  type-setting.  He  was 
not  successful  at  first,  but  after  a  second  change  he  entered  a  shop 
in  which  he  was  able  to  perfect  himself  in  the  business.  After 
fifteen  months  be  went  back  to  his  first  employer  on  a  salary  of 
fifteen  francs  a  week,  working  eight  and  a  half  hours  a  day. 

He  visited  successively  several  shops,  to  perfect  his  business 
knowledge,  and  finally,  in  1840,  he  entered  the  printing  establish- 
ment where  he  is  at  present. 

The  struggles  that  he  had  to  make  during  the  hard  times  that 
we  have  just  mentioned  so  seriously  weakened  his  constitution 
that  he  was  exempted  from  military  service.  After  several  dis- 
putes with  his  parents,  occasioned  by  his  relations  with  his  future 
wife,  at  nineteen  years  of  age  he  married,  with  no  other  resources 
than  the  sum  of  one  hundred  francs,  which  his  employer  kindly 
advanced  him,  and  which  served  to  buy  furniture  and  indispen- 
sable  household  articles.     Unfortunately,  the   young  couple 

339 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


suffered  from  several  attacks  of  sickness,  in  their  early  married 
life. 

The  confinements  of  the  wife,  together  with  her  inexperience, 
caused  her  to  live  beyond  her  means,  and  without  her  husband's 
knowledge  she  was  soon  in  a  whirlpool  of  debt.  A  thousand  petty 
domestic  annoyances  almost  separated  the  young  couple,  but  the 
husband  did  not  lose  courage.  Fully  aware  of  the  danger  of  his 
position,  he  changed  his  manner  of  living,  and  forbade  all  unnec- 
essary expense.  At  the  end  of  three  years  he  saw  his  efforts 
crowned  with  success:  his  debts  paid,  his  furniture  increased,  and 
the  general  welfare  of  his  family  greatly  augmented.  A  radical 
change  in  the  wife's  manner  of  living,  and  a  courageous  effort  on 
her  part  to  join  her  husband  in  his  undertaking,  saved  the  family 
which  had  been  so  severely  tried.  To-day  they  are  contented  and 
happy. 

Catherine  B.  was  born  in  Brussels  in  1822.  Her  father,  a  lock- 
smith by  profession,  and  a  master  tradesman,  carried  on  his 
business  at  home.  He  had  a  talent  for  invention,  which  he  used 
with  doubtful  advantage  to  a  family  of  twelve  children.  He  had 
besides  a  passion  for  fishing,  to  which  he  often  devoted  his  working 
time.  He  soon  found  himself  therefore  in  a  critical  position. 
As  a  result  Catherine  was  entrusted  with  the  care  of  the  younger 
children,  to  the  detriment  of  her  education.  Later  she  was  taught 
dressmaking,  so  that  she  might  help  the  family  in  a  more  effica- 
cious manner.  As  her  wages  were  habitually  taken  for  family 
use,  she  had  no  savings  when  she  married,  and  as  a  dowry  only  a 
few  articles  of  small  value. 

To  sum  up:  thanks  to  the  good  conduct  and  perseverance  of 
the  husband  and  wife,  thanks  also  to  their  watchful  care  over 
their  children,  the  position  of  the  family  is  a  comparatively  happy 
one. 


13.  PRACTICES  AND  INSTITUTIONS  INSURING  THE  PHYSI- 
CAL AND  MORAL  WELFARE  OF  THE  FAMILY. 

The  family  described  in  this  monograph  is  assured  of  a  certain 
degree  of  well-being,  because  of  the  remarkably  good  qualities 
which  our  workman  possesses.    However,  these  traits  are  not  those 

340 


a  workingman's  budget 


which,  under  a  regime  of  industrial  liberty,  would  enable  him  to 
rise  to  the  position  of  employer.  Although  being,  as  we  have 
seen,  in  sufficiently  easy  circumstances  to  lay  aside  a  part  of  his 
income  without  curtailing  necessary  expenses,  he  shows  no 
tendency  to  save.  From  this  very  lack  of  foresight  one  must 
conclude  that  he  feels  himself  destined  to  remain  always  in  the 
position  of  workman,  and  that  he  never  thinks  of  attaining  a 
more  secure  or  more  independent  position. 

For  fourteen  years  he  has  been  a  member  of  the  Type-setters' 
Mutual  Aid  Society,  which,  in  return  for  a  monthly  due  of  1.50  fr., 
assures  to  its  members,  in  case  of  sickness,  pecuniary  aid,  medicine, 
and  medical  attendance.  He  is  also  a  member  of  another  society, 
which  has  the  double  aim  of  maintaining  salaries  and  of  providing 
assistance  in  case  of  enforced  idleness.  These  societies  can  give 
relief  in  emergencies,  and  can  assure  the  peace  of  mind  on  the 
part  of  the  workman  necessary  for  prosecuting  studies  on  social 
economy.  However,  they  ought  not  to  release  him  from  the 
efforts  that  a  higher  degree  of  foresight  would  demand;  for  the 
family  would  be  left  without  resources,  were  it  to  lose  its  head. 

Since  the  abolition  of  the  old  manufacturing  corporations, 
which  crowded  into  the  cities,  workmen  are  often  forced  to  face 
a  condition  of  destitution.  Even  those  who  honestly  perform  the 
duties  of  their  position  are  never  free  from  danger  unless  they 
submit  rigorously  to  the  privations  which  foresight  demands. 
The  causes  of  the  great  change  which  has  come  about  in  this 
respect,  in  the  position  of  the  working  classes,  are  often  pointed 
out  in  this  work.  For  Belgium  a  summary  is  to  be  found  farther 
on. 

The  history  of  our  workman,  given  in  the  present  monograph, 
proves  the  accuracy  of  this  picture.  Born  of  a  family  of  artisans 
who  had  reached  a  position  of  well-being  through  their  work, 
but  were  suddenly  ruined  by  the  Revolution  of  1830,  he  found 
himself  from  early  childhood  in  a  condition  of  total  destitution. 
Endowed  with  excellent  qualities,  which  would  permit  him  to 
occupy  an  honorable  position  in  the  bourgeois  class,  he  has  no 
inclination  whatever  to  provide  for  the  future.  He  spends  his 
entire  salary  in  obtaining  material  comforts  for  himself  and  his 
family,  together  with  mental  and  moral  recreations.    It  is  true 

341 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


that,  in  the  present  state  of  urban  communities,  the  ruin  of  the 
father's  business  does  not  always  bring  ruin  to  the  rising  generation, 
as  happened  in  the  family  here  described;  but  it  brings  the  loss  of 
an  assured  future.  This  lack  of  security  is  especially  striking  in 
the  social  constitution  of  Belgium,  and  in  the  other  countries 
which  are  continually  upset  by  the  compulsory  division  of  estates. 
This  hard  servitude  imposed  by  the  law  and  perpetuated  by  the 
apparent  interest  of  the  state  treasury,  and  by  the  interested 
zeal  of  numerous  public  officers  in  each  generation,  destroys  the 
homes  and  shops  created  by  the  work  and  fortitude  of  heads  of 
families.  In  this  incessant  work  of  destruction,  that  which  has 
remained  for  a  time,  thanks  to  the  wisdom  of  individuals,  is  soon 
destroyed  by  the  universal  subjection  of  the  family. 


342 


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344 


A  WORKINGMAN  S  BUDGET 


15.  BUDGET  OF  ANNUAL  EXPENDITURES. 


Expenditures  for  Commodities 
and  Services. 


Section  I. 
Expenditures  for  Food. 
I.  Food  consumed  at  home. 
(By  the  workman,  his  wife,  and  their  four 
children,  during  365  days.) 

Cereals : 

Bread,  loaves  of  1  k.,  first  quality  (white 
bread)  

Rolls,  for  soup,  weighing  0.120  k.  each,  and 
costing  0.05  fr.,  100  

Fancy  rolls,  for  special  celebrations,  weigh- 
ing 0.100  k.  each,  and  costing  0.05  fr.,  50. 

Wheat  flour,  first  quality,  for  cooking  and 
pastry  

Rice,  for  soup  and  various  dishes  

Vermicelli  and  semolina  

Macaroni  


Quantity  and  Cost 
of  Food  Materials. 


Quanti- 
ties Con- 
sumed. 


Kilograms. 


Total  quantity  and  average  cost  

Fats: 

Butter  for  cooking  

Beef  and  pork  tallow,  extracted  at  home, 
used  for  cooking  


Total  quantity  and  average  cost  

Milk-foods  and  eggs: 

Skim  milk  for  coffee  and  porridge  

White  cheese  

Brussels  cheese,  called  Letekecs  

Holland  cheese  

Eggs,  used  for  various  dishes,  380  @  0.06  fr. 

Total  quantity  and  average  cost  

Meats  and  fish: 

Beef,  52  k.  @  1.20  fr.  (deducting  1  k.  for  fat) 

Veal..  

Pork,  6  k.  @  1.80  fr.  (deducting  1  k.  for  fat) 

Poultry:  6  chickens  

Game:  12  rabbits  

Fish:  stockfish,  cod,  eel,  and  herring  


836.0 
12.0 

5-° 

12.0 
12.0 
8.0 
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890.0 
54-8 


56.8 


10.0 
26.0 

II.O 

10.0 
22.0 


79.0 

52.0 
56.0 

16.0 

6.0 
18.0 

26.0 


Cost  per 
Kilogram. 


Francs. 


O.390 

O.417 

O.500 

0.700 
I. OOO 
O.960 
O.960 


O.412 

3.000 
2.000 


2.965 


O.250 
0.400 
2.000 
2.160 
I.036 


I.004 

I.200 
1.200 
2.025 
1.500 
I. OOO 

0.800 


Total  quantity  and  average  cost  |    174.0    \  1.206 


Amounts  Ex- 
pended. 


Value 
of  Ma- 
terials 
Con- 
sumed 
in  Kind, 


Francs. 


345 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Expenditures  for  Commodities  and 
Services. 


Vegetables  and  fruits: 

Potatoes,  white  and  sweet  

Dried  vegetables:  white  beans  

Fresh  vegetables  for  cooking:  French  beans, 
12  k.  @  0.450  fr.,  5.40  fr.;  green  peas,  20 
k.  @  0.480  fr.,  9.60  fr.;  cauliflower,  5  k. 
@  0.400  fr.,  2.00  fr.;  red  cabbage  and  kale 
30  k.  @  0.150  fr.,  4.50  fr.;  asparagus, 
6  k.  @  0.400  fr.,  2.40  fr.;  chicory,  5  k.  @ 
0.150  fr.,  4.50  fr.;  sorrel,  ik.@  0.200  fr., 
0.20  fr  

Root  vegetables:  carrots,  30  k.  @  0.350  fr., 
10.50  fr.;  beets,  6  k.  @  0.360  fr.,  2.16  fr.; 
turnips,  4.50  k.  @  0.250  fr.,  1.12  fr.; 
salsify,  1  k.  @  0.240  fr.,  0.24  fr  

Savory  vegetables:  onions,  25  k.  @  0.400  fr., 
10.00  fr.;  shallot,  1  k.@  1.050  fr.,  1.05  fr. 

Salad  vegetables  

Cucumbers:  gherkins  

Fruits:  cherries,  18  k.  @  0.220  fr.,  3.96  fr.; 
apples,  used  chiefly  for  apple  stew,  130  k. 
@  0.440  fr.,  57.07  fr.;  pears,  26  k.@ 
0.600  fr.,  15.60  fr.;  strawberries,  4.4  k.j 
@  0.700  fr.,  3.08  fr.;  currants,  1.5  k.  @\ 
0.750  fr.,  1. 1 2  fr.;  peaches  and  apricots,  2 
k.  @  2.90  fr.,  5.80  fr.;  nuts,  9  k.  @ 
0.300  fr.,  2.70  fr. ;  raisins,  from  own 
grape-vines,  5.5  k.  @  1.00  fr.,  5.50  fr  

Total  quantity  and  average  cost  


Quantity  and  Cost 
of  Food  Materials. 


Quanti- 
ties Con- 
sumed. 


Kilograms. 

400.0 
IO.O 


Condiments  and  beverages: 

White  salt  

Pepper,  cloves  and  nutmeg  

Vinegar  for  salad  and  cooking  

Sugars:  white,  20  k.  @  1.50  fr.,  30.00  fr.; 
syrup,  9  k.  @  1.18  fr.,  10.62  fr  

Aromatic  drinks:  coffee,  purchased  in  thej 
bean,  roasted,  not  ground,  21  k.  @  2.75 
fr->  57-75  ^.;  chicory,  8  k.  @  0.35  fr., 
2.80  fr  


Total  quantity  and  average  cost. 


rg.o 


4i.5 

26.0 
51.0 
°-5 


196.4 


804.4 


20.0 
0.9 


29.0 


29.0 


Cost  per 
Kilogram 


98.9 


Francs. 


0.100 
0.500 


0-3I5 


o-337 

0.425 
0.380 
1. 000 


0.483 


0.261 


0.300 
2.000 
0.200 

1.400 


2.088 


1. 142 


;  Value 
of  Ma- 

j  terials 
Con- 
sumed 

in  Kind. 


Francs. 


346 


a  workingman's  budget 


Expenditures  for  Commodities  and 
Services. 

Quantity  and  Cost 
of  Food  Materials. 

Amounts  Ex- 
pended. 

Quanti- 
ties Con- 
sumed. 

Cost  per 
Kilogram. 

Value 
of  Ma- 
terials 
Con- 
sumed 
in  Kind. 

Expendi- 
tures in 
Money. 

Fermented  drinks: 

Wine  

Kilograms. 

25.O 
1.0 

Francs. 

O.240 
I. OOO 

Francs. 

Francs. 
O.OO 

1.00 

2I.OO 
22.84 

II97.36 

II.  Food  prepared  and  eaten  away  from  home. 
Meals  taken  occasionally  at  restaurants  by 

26.0 

O.270 

Amounts  Expended. 


Expenditures  for  Commodities  and  Services. 


Section  II. 
Expenditures  for  Housing. 

Dwelling  house: 

Rent  of  the  house  occupied  by  the  family  (18.00  fr.  per 
month),  with  deduction  of  the  value  of  the  raisins  pro- 
duced by  a  vine  (15,  Section  I)  

Repairs  and  maintenance  

Furniture: 

Maintenance,  and  mending  of  chairs  

Fuel: 

Pit  coal,  2000  k.  @  24  fr.  per  1000  k  

Charcoal  and  wood  

Light: 

Candles,  24  k.  @  1.66  fr.,  39.84  fr.;  oil,  4  lit.  @  1.05  fr., 
4.20  fr.;  night-lights,  3  boxes  @  0.18  fr.,  0.54  fr.; 
matches,  26  boxes  @  0.05  fr.,  1.30  fr.;  large  matches, 
1-5°  fr  

Total  expenditure  for  housing  


347 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Expenditures  for  Commodities  and  Services. 


Section  III. 
Expenditures  for  Clothing. 

Clothing: 

Of  the  father;  cost  of  materials  purchased  and  home 
labor  (16  E)  

Of  the  mother;  cost  of  materials  purchased  and  home- 
labor  (16  E)  

Of  the  children;  cost  of  materials  purchased  and  home 
labor  (16  E)  

Repair  of  household  linen  and  clothing  (16  B)  

Washing: 

Washing  of  household  linen  and  clothing  (16  C)  

Total  expenditure  for  clothing  


Amounts  Expended. 


Value  of 
Materials 
Consumed 
in  Kind. 


Francs. 


8.50 
IOI.25 


226.75 


Section  IV. 

Expenditures  for  Education,  for  Recreation,  and  for  Health. 
Religion: 

Annual  expenses:  sittings  in  church  

Education  of  the  children: 

School  expenses  paid  by  the  city,  116.00  fr.;  free  atten- 
dance in  the  courses  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  for 
the  oldest  boy,  for  3  months  at  5.00  fr.  per  month, 
15.00  fr.;  books,  stationery,  pens,  pencils,  ink,  12.50: 

fr   131.00 

For  charitable  assistance: 

Relief  to  fellow- workmen,  or   to  their  widows  and! 
orphans,  various  contributions,  8.00  fr.;  subscription 
to  the  Mutual  Benefit  Society,  for  the  widows  and 
orphans  of  deceased  members,  4.50  fr.  (See  Sec.  V) . . 
Recreation : 

Dinner  given  by  the  workman  on  his  patron  saint's  day, 
28.00  fr.;  annual  banquet  of  the  Association,  5.50  fr.; 
expenses  for  excursions,  10.00  fr.;  theatre,  6.00  fr.; 
tobacco  and  cigars  for  the  workman,  12.60  fr.;  binding 

of  books,  9.09  fr  

Health: 

Services  of  physician,  8.00  fr.;  medicine,  5.50  fr.;  sub- 
scription to  Mutual  Benefit  Society,  contributions  and 
assessments,  20.00  fr  (See  Section  V)  


Total  expenditure  for  culture,  recreation,  and  health. 


131.00 


348 


a  workingman's  budget 


Expenditures  for  Commodities  and  Services. 


Amounts  Expended. 


Value  of 
Materials 
Consumed 
in  Kind. 


Expenditures 
in  Money. 


Section  V. 

Expenditures  for  the  Family  Industries,  for  Interest  on 
Debts,  for  Taxes,  and  Insurance. 

For  industries: 

Interest  on  the  value  of  the  type-setter's  working  equip- 
ment  

Note. — The  other  expenses  connected  with  the  industries 
amount  to  262.01  fr. 

They  are  offset  by  the  returns  from  these  industries: 

Namely,  money  and  materials 
used  for  household  needs,  or 
considered  as  part  of  the  savings 
and  placed  under  that  title  in 
the  present  budget  201.95  fr. 

Money  reinvested  in  the  indus-  262.01  fr. 

tries  (14,  Section  IV),  which 
cannot,  therefore,  figure  among 

the  household  expenses   60.06  fr. 

Interest  on  debts: 

(The  family  has  no  debts,  nor  any  goods  in  pawn.) 

Taxes: 

(The  family  pays  no  direct  tax.) 

Insurance,  to  safeguard  the  physical  and  moral  welfare  of 
the  family: 

Contribution  of  the  workman  to  the  Typographers' 

Mutual  Benefit  Society,  12  months  at  1.50  fr.,  18.00  fr.; 

fines  for  absence  from  meetings,  2.00  fr.;  contribution 

for  relief  of  widows  of  deceased  members,  4.50  fr. 

(These  expenditures,  and  the  receipts  which  balance 

them,  are  omitted  from  the  budget.) 
Contribution  of  the  workman  to  the  association  for  the 

maintenance  of  wages,  12  months  @  0.50  fr.,  6.00  fr.; 

fines  for  absence  from  meetings,  o.  (Expenditures; 

omitted,  as  are  receipts  which  balance  them.) 

Total  expenditures  for  industries,  for  interest  on  debts,! 


for  taxes  and  insurance. 


Annual  savings: 

The  family  accumulated  no  savings;  all  earnings  went 
to  promote  their  present  well-being. 
Total  annual  expenditure  (balancing  the  income) 

(2,224.60  fr.) 


Francs. 


3-3° 


Francs. 


3-3° 


361.05 


1863.55 


349 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

16.  ACCOUNTS  APPENDED  TO  THE  BUDGET. 


I.  ACCOUNT  OF  EARNINGS  FROM  WORK  CAR- 
RIED ON  BY  THE  FAMILY  ON  ITS  OWN 
ACCOUNT. 

A.  Correction  of  Proof. 

Receipts. 

Compensation  paid  by  employer  

Expenditures. 

Candles,  2.3  kilo  at  1.66  fr  

Paper,  pens,  and  ink  

Labor  of  man,  23.1  days,  at  4.50  fr  

Profits  from  the  industry  

Total   

B.  Making  and  Repairing  Garments  of  the  Family. 

Receipts. 

Amount  that  would  be  paid  for  these  purposes  

Expenditures. 

Cost  of  cloth  and  sewing  materials  

Labor  of  mother,  50  days  at  1.10  fr  

Quasi-gain  resulting  from  this  work  

Total  

C.  Washing. 

Amount  that  would  be  paid  for  this  purpose  

Expenditures. 

Soft  soap,  24.96  fr.;  hard  soap,  6.00  fr.;  bluing,  10.40 
fr  

Starch,  1.30  fr.;  sal-soda,  when  rain-water  is  lacking, 
3-84  fr.  

Coal  for  ironing  

Labor  of  woman,  43  days  at  1.00  fr  

Quasi-gain  resulting  from  this  work  

D.  Summary  of  the  Above  (A-C). 

Total  Receipts. 

Labor  and  materials  used  upon  clothing  [including 
washing]  

Money  received  and  expended  in  connection  with  oper- 
ation  

Money  received  and  applied  to  family  expenditures.. 

Total  

350 


Value. 


In  Kind.       In  Money. 


Francs. 


125.50 


55-°° 
70.50 


125.50 
101.25 


43.00 
58.25 


101.25 


226.75 


226.75 


a  workingman's  budget 


Value. 


Total  Expenditures. 

Wages  chargeable  to  these  operations  

Money  expenditures  requiring  reimbursement  from 
the  profits  of  these  industries  

Total  expenditures  (262.01  fr.) 

Total    gain    resulting    from    supplementary  ac- 
tivities (190.30  fr.) 


II.  ACCOUNT  OF  SUBSIDIARY  CONTRIBUTIONS 

TO  REAL  INCOME. 
(Omitted  for  this  family  because  included  in  the  budget 
itself.) 


Purchase 
Price 


III.    SUNDRY  ACCOUNTS. 
Account  of  Annual  Expenditures  for 
Clothing. 
1.  Clothing  of  Man. 
Sunday-clothes: 

1  blue  overcoat,  velvet  collar  

1  black  coat  

1  waistcoat,  black  satin  

1  pair  black  pantaloons  

1  silk  hat  

1  scarf,  black  satin  

1  pair  boots  

Working-clothes  (some  worn  on  Sunday, 
while  new): 

1  winter-overcoat,  green  cloth  

1  black  coat  

1  pair  pantaloons,  woolen  

1  pair  pantaloons,  cotton  

2  woolen  jackets  

2  work- blouses,  blue  

6  shirts,  white  cotton  (including  2 

fine  shirts)  

3  cravats,  cotton  and  woolen  

1  cravat,  black  merino  

2  pair  drawers,  cotton  

2  undershirts,  cotton  

4  pair  stockings,  cotton  

2  pair  stockings,  woolen  

1  pair  slippers  

1  pair  boots,  often  repaired  

1  cap  


Francs. 


68.OO 
40.00 
I2.00 
20.00 
I3-50 
IO.OO 
16.OO 


66.OO 
30.OO 

13-5° 
6.00 
9.00 

10.50 

22.50 
2.00 
3.00 

4.50 
5.00 
6.00 

4-  5° 

5-  5° 
15.00 

2-75 


Total  ;  385.25 


226.75 


2.50 
2.00 
1.50 
1.50 

6.00 
1.50 
0.50 
1. 00 
1. 00 
1.50 
1. 00 


351 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Purchase 

Value. 

Price. 

In  Kind. 

In  Money. 

2.  Clothing  of  Woman. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Francs. 

Sunday-clothes: 

20.00 

1. 00 

I.50 

18.00 

3.00 

10.50 

1.50 

2.00 

IO.50 

1. 00 

2.50 

6.00 

0.50 

O.50 

12.25 

0.50 

I.25 

i  bonnet,  trimmed  

6.00 

3.00 

i  skirt,  dimity  

5.00 

1. 00 

I.50 

6.00 

1.50 

I.50 

6  handkerchiefs,  Scotch  linen  

5.00 

0.50 

O.50 

6.00 

1. 00 

I. OO 

2   pair  undersleeves,  embroidered 

5.00 

0.50 

O.50 

5.00 

2.50 

Working-clothes : 

i  skirt,  cotton  and  wool  mixture  

9.00 

1.50 

3.00 

i  skirt,  black  merino  

9.00 

0.50 

1.00 

2  jackets,  colored  cotton  

6.00 

0.50 

2.50 

i  wrapper,  cotton  

5.00 

0.25 

°-7S 

4.00 

0.50 

1.50 

2.50 

T  CO 

i  bonnet,  white  tulle,  silk  ribbons... 

5.00 

2.00 

3.00 

4  caps,  white  cotton,  trimmed  with 

lace 

6.00 

i-75 

2.25 

18.00 

3.00 

3.00 

Handkerchiefs,  gloves  and  stockings 

17.  sO 

2.50 

6.25 

Foot-wear,  i  pair  shoes,  i  pair  slip- 

9.OO 

4-5° 

Total  

206.25 

22.50 

3.  Clothing  of  Children. 

Clothing  for  Sunday  and  working-days  

74-So 

5i-5o 

Following  the  details  of  the  budget  are  descriptions  of  insti- 
tutions and  discussions  of  the  family-type  represented  by  the 
given  family.  In  the  present  instance  the  titles  of  the  remaining 
sections,  grouped  under  the  general  head  "  Elements  of  the  Social 
Constitution, "  are  as  follows: 

17.  Successive  stages  of  stability  and  instability  (of  the  family 
relation)  in  Belgium. 

18.  Mutual  benefit  societies  of  the  typographers  of  Brussels. 

19.  Increase  of  wages  of  type-setters  in  1857. 

20.  Banquets  or  annual  reunions  of  typographers. 

352 


APPENDIX  VIII 

Partial  Bibliography  of  Works  on  the  Standard 

of  Living 

By  Robert  C.  Chapin,  Ph.D. 

This  bibliography  is  not  exhaustive,  and  includes  only  general  works  on  the  standard 
of  living  and  workingmen's  budgets 

i.  Bibliography  and  Criticism 

Bauer,  Stephan :  Article  "Konsumtionsbudget"  in  Conrad's 
Handworterbuch  der  Staatswissenschaften.    (II.  Auflage, 

V:  31^-333  ) 

A  succinct  critical  account  of  the  methods  and  results  of  the  successive  attempts 
to  study  workingmen's  budgets,  with  bibliographical  references. 

Biicher,  Karl :  Haushaltungsrechnungen  oder  Wirtschaftsrech- 
nungen.  Zeitschrift  fur  die  gesamte  Staatswissenschaft. 
1906.    S.  686,  fT. 

Introduces  a  ten-years'  household  account. 

Cheysson  et  Toque :  Les  Budgets  Compares  des  cent  Mono- 
graphies  de  Families.  Bulletin  de  l'lnstitut  Internationale 
de  Statistique,  VI,  p.  I  (1891). 

Contains  a  description  and  defense  of  Le  Play's  method,  a  bibliography,  and'a 
synopsis  of  100  budgets  gathered  by  Le  Play  and  members  of  his  school. 

Engel,  Ernst :  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiterfamilien.  Bul- 
letin de  Tlnstitut  Internationale  de  Statistique,  IX:  (1895) 
p.  1. 

Engel  discusses  in  the  opening  sections  the  problem  of  method  in  the  light  of 
his  own  labors  of  40  years.    His  proposed  "  quet"  is  here  described. 

Higgs,  Henry :  Workingmen's  Budgets.  Journal  of  the  Royal 
Statistical  Society,  1893;  pp.  255-285. 

Contains,  besides  the  discussion  of  method,  specimen  budgets  extracted  from 
Davies,  Eden,  Le  Play  and  more  recent  sources. 

Landolt,  Carl  (Karl) :  Directions  Sur  la  Maniere  de  dresser  les  Bud- 
gets d'Ouvriers  Industrielles  et  d' Artisans.  Bulletin  de l'ln- 
stitut  Internationale  de  Statistique,  VI:  289  fT.  (1891). 
Bibliography,  pp.  301-304. 

A  severe  critic  of  Le  Play  and  an  advocate  of  the  account-book  method. 

23  353 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

Landolt,  Karl :  Mode  und  Technik  der  Haushaltsstatistik. 
Freiburg,  1894. 

Le  Play,  Frederic  :  La  Methode  Sociale.  LesOuvriers  Europeens. 
Vol.  I,  of  the  definitive  edition.    Paris,  1879. 

Contains  Le  Play's  charming  description  of  his  own  purpose  and  method. 

Lexis,  Wilhelm :  Die  Haushaltungsbudget.  In  Schonberg's 
Handbuch  der  Politischen  Oekonomie,  I,  814-816. 

Mayo-Smith,  Richmond  :  Statistics  and  Economics,  Chapter  II. 
New  York,  1897. 

Discusses  methods  and  sociological  significance  of  statistics  of  family  consump- 
tion, with  bibliographical  note. 

Price,  L.  L. :  Article  "Comfort,  Standard  of,"  in  Palgrave's 
Dictionary  of  Political  Economy.     I,  387.    London,  1890. 

Traces  briefly  the  discussion  of  the  standard  of  comfort  by  the  British  economists. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor :  Third  Special  Report.  (Re- 
vised, 1902.)  Index  of  reports  issued  by  Bureaus  of  Labor 
Statistics  in  the  United  States. 

Contains  references  to  all  investigations  into  cost  of  living  carried  on  by  the  state 
labor  bureaus  down  to  1902. 


2.  Estimates  and  Investigations  Prior  to  the  Nineteenth  Century 

Petty,  Sir  William:  Political  Arithmetic,  Chapter  VII.  Writ- 
ten 1671-76,  published  1690. 
Political  Anatomy  of  Ireland,  Chapter  XI.    Written  1672, 
published  1691. 

Vanderlint,  Jacob:  Money  Answers  All  Things.  1734. 

Inquiry  into  the  Melancholy  Circumstances  of  Great  Britain, 
circa   1735;    p.  29. 

Thierry:  Monuments  inedits  de  THistoire  du  Tiers  Etat.  I. 
Series  T.  IV,  p.  545.  (Contains  budget  of  a  weaver  of 
Abbeville,  1764.) 

Smith,  Adam:  Wealth  of  Nations.  1776. 

Part  I,  Chapter  VIII,  contains  an  exposition  of  the  advantage  to  the  community 
of  a  rising  standard  of  living  among  the  laboring  classes. 

354 


PARTIAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Davies,  David  :  The  Case  of  the  Laborers  in  Husbandry,  stated 
and  considered  in  three  parts.  Part  I :  A  view  of  their 
distressed  condition.  Part  II:  The  principal  causes  of 
their  growing  distress  and  number  and  of  the  consequent 
increase  of  the  poor-rate.  Part  III:  Means  of  relief 
proposed,  with  an  appendix  containing  a  collection  of 
accounts,  showing  the  earnings  and  expenses  of  labouring 
families,  in  different  parts  of  the  kingdom.  Bath  and 
London,  1795. 

Eden,  Sir  Frederick  Morton :  The  State  of  the  Poor.  Three 
volumes,  London,  1797. 

Fifty-four  family  budgets  are  grouped  in  the  appendix  (Vol.  Ill),  but  others  are 
scattered  through  the  text  of  Volumes  II  and  III. 

References  to  other  eighteenth-century  estimates  are  appended 
to  the  article  of  Bauer,  already  referred  to. 


3.  Works  of  More  Recent  Times 
Berlin:    Statistisches  Jahrbuch  der  Stadt  Berlin. 

Successive  volumes  contain  synopses  of  budget-investigations  as  follows: 

1879.  Jahrgang   7;  S.  137.      15  budgets,  secured  by  schedule-inquiry. 

1880.  Jahrgang  8;  S.  164.       2  budgets,  from  account-books. 
1901.  'Jahrgang  27;  S.  269.    142  budgets,  from  schedule-inquiry. 
1903.  Jahrgang  28;  S.  200.    908  budgets,  from  schedule-inquiry. 

The  detailed  report  of  the  last  investigation  was  published  separately  under 
the  title  which  follows: 

Berliner  Statistik :  Heft  3.  Lohnermittlungen  und  Haushal- 
tungsrechnungen  der  minder  bemittelten  Bevolkerung 
im  Jahre  1903.    Statistisches  Amt  der  Stadt  Berlin,  1904. 

Blanqui,  A.  J. :  Les  Classes  Ouvrieres  en  France  pendant  l'annee 
1848,  p.  736.    (Budget  of  a  family  in  Lille.) 

Booth,  Charles :  Life  and  Labor  of  the  People  in  London. 
London,  1 889-1 892. 

Vol.  I,  Part  V  and  VI.  Vol.  IX,  Part  III,  Chapter  13.  The  budgets  of  30 
families  are  given  in  Vol.  I,  pp.  136-139. 

Bosanquet,  Mrs.  Bernard  :  (Helen  Dandy.)  The  Standard  of 
Life  and  other  Studies.    London,  1898. 

A  discussion  of  the  conception  of  the  standard  of  living  and  its  relation  to  wages. 

Devine,  Edward  T.:  Principles  of  Relief.  New  York,  1905. 
Chapter  III,  The  Standard  of  Living. 

355 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 


Ducpetiaux,  Edouard :  Budgets  Economiques  des  Classes 
Ouvrieres  en  Belgique.  Bulletin  de  la  Commission  Centrale 
de  la  Statistique  (Belgium),  Vol.  VI  (1855):  261-440. 

Economic  Club,  London:  Family  Budgets:  Being  the  Income 
and  Expenses  of  Twenty-eight  British  Households,  1891-94. 
London,  1896. 

Charles  Booth,  Ernest  Aves,  Henry  Higgs,  were  the  committee  of  the  Club  in 
charge  of  the  inquiry. 

Emminghaus:  Zum  Kapital  der  Haushaltskosten.  Jahrbucher 
fur  National-okonomie  und  Statistik,  Nov.,  1904,  S.  650- 
661. 

The  household  accounts  of  a  German  official  covering  the  period  1862-1903. 

Engel,  Ernst :  Productions-und  Konsumtionsverhaltnisse  des 
Konigreichs  Sachsen.  Zeitschrift  des  Statistischen  Bureaus 
des  Koniglichen  Sachsischen  Ministeriums  des  Innern, 
1857,  S.  153  fL  (Reprinted  also  in  the  Bulletin  de  l'lnstitut 
Internationale  de  Statistique,  Vol.  IX.  1895.) 

This  is  the  epoch-making  work  of  Engel,  who  continued  to  work  upon  the  general 
subject  until  his  death  in  1896.  The  titles  of  his  contributions  to  the  statistical 
journals  may  be  found  in  detail  in  the  German  bibliographies.  The  "Lebenskosten" 
contains  the  summing  up  of  his  life-work  in  this  field.  The  three  shorter  books 
named  below  are  among  the  most  significant  of  his  minor  works. 

Engel,  Ernst :  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiterfamilien.  Bul- 
letin de  l'lnstitut  Internationale  de  Statistique,  IX:  (1895) 
p.  I. 

Der  Preis  der  Arbeit.    Berlin,  1866. 

Das  Rechnungsbuch  der  Hausfrau.    Berlin,  1882. 

Der  Werth  des  Menschen.    Berlin,  1883. 

Forman,  S.  E. :  Conditions  of  Living  Among  the  Poor.  Bulletin 
of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  No.  64,  May,  1906. 

Expenditures  in  detail  for  5  weeks  for  19  families  in  the  District  of  Columbia. 

Cost  of  Industrial  Insurance  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  Bul- 
letin No.  67,  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  Nov.,  1906. 

Gerloff,  Wilhelm  :  Verbrauch  und  Verbrauchsbelastung  kleiner 
und  mittlerer  Einkommen  in  Deutschland.  Jahrbucher 
fur  National-okonomie  und  Statistik,  3te  Folge,  Band  35, 
S.  1  und  145. 

A  study  of  the  tendency  of  indirect  taxes  to  bear  most  heavily  on  families  with 
small  incomes.  Recent  German  studies  of  family  budgets  are  cited,  in  addition 
to  the  Berlin  inquiry  of  1904,  as  follows: 

Berichte  der  bayrischen  Fabrik-und  Gewerbeinspektoren,  1900-1905. 

356 


PARTIAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Haushaltungsrechnungen  Nurnberger  Lohnarbeiter.  Arbeitersekretariat 
Nurnberg,  1901. 

Haushaltungsrechnungen.  Hamburgischer  Volksschullehrer,  Hamburg, 
1906. 

Der  Haushalt  der  Postassistenten.    Deutsche  Postzeitung,  1903. 

Fuchs.    Die  Verhaltnisse  der  Industriearbeiter  in  17  Landgemeinden 

bei  Karlsruhe,  1904. 
Fuchs.    Sociale  Lage  der  Pforzheimer  Bijouteriearbeiter.  Karlsruhe, 

1901. 

Haushaltungsrechnungen  zweier  Fabrikarbeiter.    J.  H.  Salomon,  Altona, 
1906. 

Abelsdorf.    Beitrage  zur  Socialstatistik  deutscher  Buchdrucker,  1897. 
Feuerstein.    Lohn  und  Haushalt  der  Uhrenfabrikarbeiter  der  badischen 

Schwarzwald,  1905. 
Enquete  zur  Verbreitung  der  Kunftigen  Handelsvertrage  von  der  Schweiz- 

erischen  Bauernsekretariat,  1902. 

Goodyear,  Caroline:  Household  Budgets  of  the  Poor.  "Charities 
and  the  Commons/'  May  5,  1906,  pp.  191-197. 

Gould,  E.  R.  L.:  Social  Condition  of  Labor.  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity Studies,  vol.  xi,  No.  1.    Baltimore,  1893. 

A  comparison  of  family  budgets  of  workers  in  coal,  iron,  and  steel  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe,  based  on  the  sixth  and  seventh  annual  reports  of  the  United 
States  Bureau  of  Labor. 

Great  Britain,  Board  of  Trade  :  British  and  Foreign  Trade  and 
Industry,  190J,  Series  1.  209-258.  Consumption  of  Food 
and  Cost  of  Living.    (Cd.  1761.) 

Contains  (i)  estimates  regarding  quantity  and  cost  of  food  for  a  typical  family; 
(2)  itemized  returns  of  expenditures  for  food  from  286  urban  families. 

Great  Britain  Board  of  Trade  :  Memoranda  on  British  and  foreign 
trade  and  industrial  conditions,  1904,  Series  2.    (Cd.  2337.) 

Embraces  deductions  from  reports  received  from  1800  families  with  reference 
to  weekly  expenditure  for  food  and  for  housing  together  with  calculations  of  the 
variations  in  cost  of  all  the  principal  items  of  household  expenditures  since  1880. 

Great  Britain,  Board  of  Trade:  Cost  of  Living  of  the  Work- 
ing Classes.  Report  of  an  enquiry  into  working-class 
rents,  housing,  and  retail  prices,  with  the  standard  rates 
of  wages  in  the  principal  industrial  towns  of  the  United 
Kingdom.    London,  1908.    (Cd.  3864.) 

Compares  by  index-numbers  rents  in  89  towns  with  rents  in  London,  with  data 
regarding  cost  of  food  and  fuel. 

Great  Britain,  Board  of  Trade:  Cost  of  Living  in  German 
Towns.    London,  1908.    (Cd.  4032.) 

A  comparison  of  housing  and  retail  prices  of  food  and  fuel  in  33  German  towns 
with  conditions  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The  total  number  of  family  reports 
obtained  is  5,046. 


357 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

Herzfeld,  Elsa  G. :  Family  Monographs,  New  York,  1905. 

Twenty-four  families  on  the  West  Side  of  New  York  City  are  studied,  primarily 
from  the  sociological  rather  than  the  economic  point  of  view. 

Hirschberg,  E. :  Die  Sociale  Lage  der  arbeitenden  Klassen  in 
Berlin,  1896.    (13  budgets.) 

Knauer :  Budgets  Ouvriers  en  Frankfort,  1890. 

Landolt,  Karl:  Dix  Menages  Ouvriers  Balois,  1891. 

The  two  foregoing  exemplify  the  account-book  method. 

Le  Play,  Fre*de*ric :  Les  Ouvriers  Europeens.    Paris,  1855— 1 879. 

Contains  in  5  volumes  monographs  descriptive  of  57  families,  in  many  countries* 
The  work  of  Le  Play  is  the  authoritative  exemplification  of  the  intensive  method. 
His  followers  continued  the  series  in  ten  volumes  of  additional  monographs,  en- 
titled, "Les  Ouvriers  des  Deux  Mondes." 

More,  Louise  Bolard :  Wage-Earners'  Budgets.  A  Study  of 
Standards  and  Cost  of  Living  in  New  York  City.  New  York, 
1907. 

A  study  of  200  family  budgets,  obtained  in  the  South-western  section  of  New 
York. 

Patten,  S.  N. :  The  New  Basis  of  Civilization.    New  York,  1907. 

A  suggestive  interpretation  of  the  meaning  of  an  ample  standard  of  living  in 
its  effect  upon  the  welfare  of  mankind. 

Pelloutier,  Fernand  et  Maurice:  La  Vie  Ouvriere  en  France. 
Paris,  1900. 

Chapter  VI  contains  ten  representative  budgets. 

Richards,  Ellen  H. :  The  Cost  of  Living.    New  York,  1899. 

Suggestions  as  to  economy  in  expenditures,  especially  for  families  with  incomes 
between  $1500  and  $2500. 

Rowntree,  B.  Seebohm  :  Poverty,  a  Study  of  Town  Life.  London, 
1901. 

A  study  of  the  city  of  York.  Chapter  III  deals  with  the  standard  of  life  of  various 
income-classes;  Chapter  VI  with  housing;  Chapter  VII  with  health;  Chapter  VIII 
contains  analyses  of  18  family  budgets  with  discussion  of  dietary  standard. 

Ryan,  John  A.:  A  Living  Wage;  its  Ethical  and  Economic 
Aspects.    New  York,  1906. 

A  vindication  of  the  right  to  a  living  wage,  with  an  estimate  of  its  actual  content. 

Shadwell,  Arthur:  Industrial  Efficiency;  a  Comparative  Study 
of  Industrial  Life  in  England,  Germany  and  America. 
London,  1906. 

In  Vol.  II,  Chapter  XI  treats  of  Housing;  XII,  of  Cost  of  Living;  XIII,  of 
Social  Conditions. 

358 


PARTIAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Sherwell  and  Million :  Report  of  Edinburgh  Charity  Organi- 
zation Society  on  the  Physical  Condition  of  Fourteen 
Hundred  School  Children.    Edinburgh,  1906. 

Reports  of  1389  children  from  781  families.  Complete  budgets  of  the  families 
are  not  given,  but  interesting  data  as  to  habits,  income,  housing,  etc.,  are  included. 

Worishofer,  F.:  Die  Sociale  Lage  der  Fabrikarbeiter  in  Mann- 
heim. Karlsruhe,  1 891 .  Fart  VII  includes  a  tabulation 
of  28  family  budgets,  and  discussion  of  nutrition. 

4.    Publications  of  the  National  and  State  Governments  in  the 

United  States 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor:  Sixth  annual  report,  1890. 
Cost  of  Production:  Iron,  Steel,  Coal. 

Compilation  of  returns  from  3260  families  in  these  industries,  including  770 
families  in  Europe,  engaged  in  the  same  occupations. 

Seventh  annual  report,  1891.  Cost  of  Production:  the  Textiles 
and  Glass  (with  returns  from  5284  families). 

Eighth  Special  report,  1895.  The  Housing  of  the  Working 
People. 

Ninth  Special  report,  1897.    The  Italians  in  Chicago. 

Pages  44-50,  food-expenditures  of  742  families. 

Eighteenth  annual  report,  1903.  Cost  of  Living  and  Retail 
Prices  of  Food. 

Returns  from  25,440  families  in  all  occupations  in  33  states.  The  data  regard- 
ing prices  have  been  continued  for  each  succeeding  year  in  the  Bulletins  of  the 
Department,  Nos.  54,  59,  65,  71,  77. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Bulletins. 

The  movement  of  wages  and  prices,  following  the  lines  of  the  work  done  by  the 
Bureau  for  the  Aldrich  Report,  is  given  at  intervals,  covering  the  period  from  1890 
to  1907  inclusive,  in  Bulletins  Nos.  59,  65,  71,  77.  No.  53  contains  a  summary  of 
the  Eighteenth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  on  Cost  of  Living.  Nos.  64  and  67 
contain  the  studies  of  Mr.  Forman,  already  referred  to.  Other  investigations 
more  or  less  germane  to  the  standard  of  living  may  be  found  in  the  list  of  titles  of 
leading  articles  for  the  whole  series,  printed  at  the  end  of  each  number  of  the 
Bulletin. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Statistics:  Industrial  Education  and 
Industrial  Conditions  in  Germany.  Special  Consular  Re- 
ports, Vol.  33,  1905,  pp.  220-229.    Cost  of  Living. 

The  budgets  of  five  Prussian  and  five  Saxon  families. 

United  States  Senate  Reports :  First  Session,  Fifty-Second 
Congress;  Vol.  VI  (The  "Aldrich  Report"). 

Contains  discussion  and  summary  of  twelve  studies  of  family  budgets  in  the 
United  States  (Part  I,  xl-lv),  and  details  of  232  budgets  collected  for  use  in  the 
weighing  of  averages  to  be  used  in  the  body  of  the  report  (Part  II,  2040-2096). 


359 


THE  STANDARD  OF  LIVING 

Young,  Edward  :  Labor  in  Europe  and  America.    United  States 
Bureau  of  Statistics,  1875. 

Includes  reports  of  family  budgets  designed  to  show  differences  in  cost  of  living 
between  Europe  and  America. 

Reports  of  State  Labor  Bureaus 
The  complete  list  of  reports  of  the  State  Bureaus  that  con- 
tain material  bearing  upon  our  subject  will  be  found  in  the 
index  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor,  already 
referred  to  (Third  Special  Report,  revised  1902).  Among 
the  more  valuable  are  the  following,  which  are  arranged 
by  States  and  the  dates  of  the  year  of  publication: 

Connecticut,  1885. 
1888,  pp.  87-135. 

Reports  from  102  families  made  out  by  members  of  the  family. 

Illinois,  1884. 

Iowa,  1884-85,  pp.  246-259. 

Budgets  of  School-teachers.  1888-89. 

Kansas,  1886. 
1887. 

Massachusetts,  1875. 

The  first  investigation  of  family  budgets  published  by  Carroll  D.  Wright,  in- 
cluding 397  families. 

1 88 1. 
1884. 

1 90 1,  pp.  239-314. 

1904,  pp.  81-130.    The  Cost  of  High  Prices. 

New  Jersey,  1899. 
1900. 

New  York,  1892. 

Maryland,  1906. 

Ohio,  1893. 

Wisconsin,  1885-86. 

Washington,  1905-06. 


360 


Index 


Index 


Accuracy  of  the  returns,  32-33 
"Adequate  relief,"  Appendix  I  (p.  255) 

Albany,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV  (pp. 
300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp.  305- 
306) 

Alcoholic  drinks — 

Expenditure  for,  31,  133-135,  221. 
—Tables  71-74  (pp.  147-149) 

Aldrich  Report  on  cost  of  living,  5 

Allen,  Wm.  H.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

American  families — 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel  and 
light,  115;  diet  of,  124,  154-156;  un- 
der-fed families  among,  128;  meals 
away  from  home,  132;  expenditure 
for  alcoholic  drinks,  134,  221;  grade 
of  milk  used,  135;  food  budgets  of, 
154-156;  expenditure  for  health,  182; 
carrying  insurance,  191-194,  Dia- 
grams 15-16  (pp.  191-192);  taxes, 
dues,  and  contributions,  206,  207; 
recreation  and  amusement,  211;  edu- 
cation and  reading,  214;  reporting 
surplus  and  deficit,  230,  231;  conclu- 
sions on  standards  of,  247.  See  also 
Tables  under  the  various  headings 

American  Federation  of  Labor — 

Cooperation  of,  in  the  investiga- 
tion, 27,  Appendix  II  (p.  269) 

"American  standard,"  194,  230,  247, 
Appendix  I  (p.  257) 

Amusement.    See  Recreation 


1  "Anatomy    of    Ireland,"    by  Sir 

William  Petty,  4 

Atkinson,  Edward — 

Report  of,  to  Aldrich  Committee,  5 

Atwater,  W.  0.— 

Investigation  of  dietary  require- 
ments, 15  (table),  18-19,  Appendix 
II  (p.  265) 

I  Austrian  families  (including  Hunga- 
rian and  other  southeastern  Euro- 
peans)— 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel  and 
light,  115;  diet  of,  124,  158,  Appen- 
dix II  (p.  275);  under-fed  families 
among,  128;  food  budget  of,  158; 
clothing,  162,  163,  165,  168;  carrying 
insurance,  191-194,  Diagrams  15-16 
(pp.  191-192);  taxes,  dues  and.  con- 

l  tributions,  206,  207;  recreation  and 
amusement,  210;  education  and 
reading,    214,    215;     tobacco,  220; 

I      reporting  surplus  and  deficit,  230,  231; 

I  conclusions  on  standards  of,  247. 
See  also  Tables  under  the  various 
headings 

!  Averages  and  percentages — 

Method  of  calculating,  42,  Appen- 
dices II  (p.  263,  note),  V  (p.  312,  note) 


Bakery — 

Dependence  of  families  on,  132 

Barber's  services — 

Use  of,  221-222,  222  (note) 


Analysis  of  returns  received,  35-250     Bath-rooms.    See  Housing 

363 


INDEX 


Bauer,  Stephan— 

Estimates  of  costs  of  living  cited 
by,  5 

Belgian  Statistical  Bureau — 

Engel's  account  of  investigations 
by,  9-1 1 ;  schedule  adopted  by,  10 

Belgium — 

Budgets  collected  in,  12 

Benefit  societies — 

Contributions  to,  206,  207. — Tables 
105-106  (pp.  208-209).  See  also 
Insurance 

Bigelow,  Mrs.  Lewis,  Appendix  IV 
(p.  300,  note) 

Bohemian  families — 

Sources  of  income,  57,  58,  59; 
housing  and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81; 
fuel  and  light,  115;  relation  of  food- 
expenditure  to  rent,  123;  under-fed 
families  among,  128;  expenditure 
for  alcoholic  drinks,  134;  clothing, 
162,  163,  165,  168;  expenditure  for 
health,  182;  carrying  insurance, 
191-194,  Diagrams  15-16  (pp.  191- 
192);  taxes,  dues,  and  contributions, 
206,  207;  education  and  reading,  214; 
reporting  surplus  and  deficit,  230, 
231;  conclusions  on  standards  of,  247. 
See  also  Tables  under  the  various 
headings 

Booth,  Charles — 

"Life  and  Labor  of  the  People  in 
London,"  17,  17  (note),  18 

Borrowing  and  pawning,  233-234, 
Appendix  II  (p.  277). — Table  128 
(p.  244) 

Brandt,  Miss  Lilian,  viii 

Brodsky,  Dr.  Rasum,  viii 

Bronx  borough — 

Housing,  rent,  and  car-fare  in, 
81,  in. — Tables  19,  24,  52  (pp.  87, 
90,  113).  For  other  items,  see 
Tables  under  the  various  headings 

Brooklyn — 

Housing,  rent,  and  car-fare  in, 
77,  78,  8i,  in. — Tables  19,  24,  51-52 
(pp.  87,  90,  113).  For  other  items, 
see  Tables  under  the  various  headings 

364 


Brussels  Statistical  Congress — 

Investigations  conducted  by,  9-1 1 

Budgets,  workingmen's — 

Importance  of,  in  determining  the 
standard  of  living,  3;  in  statistical 
literature,  3-21;  collections  of,  see 
Standard  0}  Living  Investigations 

1 'Budgets  Economiques,"  by  Ducpe- 
tiaux,  11 

Buffalo,  N.  Y.— 

Report  on  Investigation  in,  Appen- 
dix V  (pp.  307-317);  nutrition  report 
for,  Appendix  VI  (pp.  324-325).— 
Table  131  (p.  318) 

"Bulletin    de    l'Institut  Interna- 
tionale de  Statistique,"  17 

Bulletins,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Labor,  19 

Burial — 

Insurance,  191,  192,  207,  245-246; 
expenses,  222.  See  also  Industrial 
insurance 


Cantillon,  on  costs  of  living  (1750),  5 

Car-fare,  68,  Diagrams  6-7  (pp.  68- 
69),  111-112,  Appendix  II  (pp.  268, 
276);  expenditures  in  Buffalo,  Appen- 
dix V  (p.  313).— Tables  15,  51-53 
(pp.  70,  113-114) 

"Case  of  the  Laborers  in  Hus- 
bandry,''  by  David  Davies,  6 

Causes  of  Poverty — 

A  new  classification  of,  Appendix  I 
(pp.  253-255) 

Children- 
Earnings  of,  57-58.    See  also  Earn- 
ings; Income,  sources  of 

Clothing- 
Relative  expenditure  for,  68,  Dia- 
grams 6-7  (pp.  68-69);  details  of 
expenditure  in  New  York,  1 62-1 71, 
Appendix  II  (pp.  267,  275-276,  278, 
281);  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V  (p. 
313  ff.);  comparison  of  nationalities 
with  respect  to,  162,  163;  relation  of 
occupations  to  expenditure,  162,  Ap- 


INDEX 


pendix  IV  (p.  303);  families  reporting 
gifts,  163-164,  Appendix  II  (pp.  275 
-276);  estimate  of  clothing  required 
and  its  cost,  165-167,  Appendix  II 
(pp.  275-276);  under-clad  families, 
167-169,  Diagrams  13-14  (pp.  167- 
16S);  expense  for  washing,  1 70-171, 
Appendix  II  (p.  275). — Tables  15-16, 
79-90  (pp.  70-74,  172-181) 

Colored  families — 

Sources  of  income,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77,  79,  81;  fuel  and 
light,  115;  food-expenditure  in  rela- 
tion to  rent,  123;  under-fed  families 
among,  128;  reliance  on  baker,  132; 
meals  away  from  home,  132;  cloth- 
ing, 163,  168;  carrying  insurance, 
191-194,  Diagrams  15-16  (pp.  191- 
192);  low  expenditure  for  furniture, 
200;  taxes,  dues,  and  contributions, 
206,  207;  reporting  surplus  and  de- 
ficit, 230,  231;  conclusions  on  stand- 
ards of.  247.  See  also  Tables  under 
the  various  headings 

Committee  on  Standard  of  Living — 

Formation  and  membership  of, 
vii,  Appendix  II  (p.  263) 

Compensation — 

Standards  of,  Appendix  I  (pp. 
254,  255,  260-261) 

Conclusions  as  to  results  of  the  New 
York  City  investigation,  245-250, 
Appendix  II  (p.  263  ff.) 

Consuming-power.  See  Dietary  re- 
quirements; Food-consumption;  Unit 
of  Con  sum  ption 

Contributions.  See  Taxes,  Dues,  and 
Contributions 

Cost  of  living — 

Objects  of  inquiries  into,  vii,  3,  4, 
5,  20-21,  Appendices  I  (pp.  253- 
262),  II  (p.  263);  investigations  of, 
see  Standard  of  Living  Investigations 

Cost  of  the  New  York  investigation. 

See  Expenses 

Court  suggested,  to  try  new  social 
crimes,  Appendix  I  (p.  260) 

"Culture-wants,"  198 


Davies,  David — 

Investigations  by,  6,  7,  21;  "Case 
of  the  Laborers  in  Husbandry,"  6 

Deficit.    See  Surplus  and  Deficit 

Dentistry,  184,  245,  Appendix  II  (pp. 
276,  279). — Tables  94-95  (pp.  189- 
190).    See  also  Health 

Devine,  Dr.  Edward  T.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii,  viii;  note  from  Presi- 
dential address  at  National  Confer- 
ence, 1906,  Appendix  I  (p.  253); 
estimate  on  cost  of  living,  Appendix  I 
(pp.  256-257) 

!  Dietary  requirements,  15,  15  (notes), 
16,  16  (note),  18-19;  Dr.  Underbill's 
analysis  of,  Appendix  VI  (pp.  319- 
325).  See  also  Food;  En  gel;  At- 
water;  Under  hill;  U.  S.  Bureau  of 
Labor,  etc. 

Difficulties  of  the  investigation,  30- 

31;  Appendix  II  (pp.  269-270) 

I  Drescher,Wm. 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Ducpetiaux,  Edouard — 

Belgian   investigations  conducted 
by,  9,  11,12,  13;   " Budgets  Econom- 
j      iques,"  ti;  his  "normal  family/'  14 

I  Dues.  See  Taxes,  Dues  and  Contri- 
butions 


Earnings,  of  father  and  others — 

Amounts  and  relative  proportions 
of,  54-60,  Diagrams  4-5  (pp.  54,  56); 
relation  of  occupations  to,  55-56; 
from  lodgers,  58-59;  source  of,  with 
respect  to  surplus  and  deficit,  231, 
Appendix  II  (p.  264);  of  families 
in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V  (p.  309). — 
Tables  3-6,  7-14,  1 21-123  (PP-  4^~ 
52,  61-07,  237-239).  See  also  In- 
come, sources  of 

Earp,  Professor  E.  L., "Appendix  IV 
(p.  300,  note) 


365 


INDEX 


Economic  Club  of  London — 

"  Twentv-eight  British  House- 
holds," 18* 

Eden,  Sir  Frederick  Morton — 

Investigations  by,  6-7,  20;  "State 
of  the  Poor,"  6,  7,  7  (note) 

Education  and  Reading,  211,  214- 
215,  Appendix  II  (pp.  268,  276-277); 
of  families  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V 
(p.  314). — Tables  109-111  (pp.  216- 
218) 

Einstein,  Mrs.  Wm. — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Elmira,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV 
(pp.  300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 

Engel,  Ernst — 

Investigations  by,  9,  11-16,  20; 
"  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiter- 
familien,"  9  (note),  13;  his  famous 
Laws,  11-12;  establishes  unit  of 
consumption  (the  "quet"),  14,  15, 
16  (note);  director  Saxon  Statistical 
Bureau,  11;  variations  from  Engel's 
Laws  in  New  York  City,  123 

Enumeration  of  families,  37-43. — 
Tables  1-2  (pp.  44~45) 

Enumerators,  vii-viii,  26-28 

Essentials  of  a  normal  standard  of 
living,  Appendix  I  (p.  256) 

Estimates- 
Method  of,  in  standard  of  living 
investigations,  3-5 ;  by  various  writers 
on  costs  of  living,  Appendix  I  (p. 
257) 

Excursions.    See  Recreation 

Expenditure — 

Objects  of,  68-228,  Appendices  II 
(pp.  279-282),  V  (pp.  309-317);  ap- 
portionment of  (averages  and  percen- 
tages), 68-69,  Diagrams  6-7  (pp. 
68-69). — Tables  15-16  (pp.  70-74). 
See  also  Housing;  Food,  etc.;  In- 
come; Surplus  and  Deficit;  and 
Tables  under  the  various  headings 

366 


I  Expenses  of  the  investigation,  vii,  26, 
27,  28,  33.    See  also  Rtissell  Sage 
i  Foundation 

I 

j  Exploitation  of  labor,  a  cause  of 
poverty,  Appendix  I  (pp.  254,  261) 


Families,  "normal"  or  "typical," 

8,  9,  14,  17,  28,  37,  37  (note) 

!  Families  interviewed,  in  the  New 
York  City  investigation,  28-29, 
Appendix  II  (pp.  269-270);  depend- 
ent excluded,  28;  how  far  typical  of 
the  working  population,  29;  attitude 
of,  30-31;  in  the  Buffalo  investiga- 
tion, Appendix  V  (p.  307  ff.) 

Family  budgets.    See  Budgets;  Stan- 
dard 0}  Living  Investigations 

Father,  earnings  of.    See  Earnings; 
Income,  sources  o] 

Fitzgerald,  John  J. — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Folks,  Homer — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Food- 
Method  of  reckoning  expenditure, 
26,  30,  32,  Appendix  II  (pp.  264-265); 
relative  expenditure  for,  68,  Dia- 
grams 6-7  (pp.  68-69);  details  of 
expenditure  in  New  York,  123-136, 
Appendix  II  (pp.  264-266,  271, 
274-275,  279,  281);  in  Buffalo,  Ap- 
pendix V  (pp.  311-312,   314  ff.); 

comparison  of  nationalities  with 
respect  to,  123,  124,  128,  129,  132, 

134,  Appendix  II  (p.  275);  relation 
of  expenditure  to  rent,  123;  expendi- 
tures for  certain  food  materials,  124, 

135,  154-161;  scale  of  units  of  food 
consumption,  Engel's,  16  (note), 
U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  125;  Dr. 
Underbill's  analysis  of  nutritive  val- 
ues, 125-128,  154,  Appendices  II  (pp. 
265-266,  271),  V  (p.  316),  VI  (pp. 
319-325);  items  of  detail,  131-136; 
note  on  food  budgets  of  six  typical 
families,  154-161. — Tables  15-16, 
59-78  (pp.  70-74,  137-153) 


INDEX 


Food-consumption,  measurement  of. 

See  Dietary  Requirements;  Unit  of 
Consumption 

Forman,  Dr.  S.  E.— 

Collection  of  budgets  by,  19, 
article  on  "industrial"  insurance, 
194  (note) 

Frankel,  Dr.  Lee  K.— 

Chairman  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii,  viii;  report  of,  Appen- 
dix II  (pp.  263-282) 

Fuel  and  light,  115-1 17,  Appendix  II 
(pp.  264,  273,  279).— Tables  15, 
54-58  (PP-  7°>  1 18-122) 

Funeral  expenses,  how  met,  191, 
i93>  193  (note),  194,  219,  222,  245- 
246,  Appendix  II  (pp.  266,  277) 

Furniture  and  furnishings,  200-201, 
245,  246,  Appendices  II  (pp.  267, 
274,  278,  281);  of  families  in  Buffalo, 
Appendix  V  (p.  310). — Tables  10 1- 
104  (pp.  202-205) 


Gas,  use  of.    See  Fuel  and  Light 
"Going  Wages,"  Appendix  I  (p.  260) 

Government  supervision — 

Defects  in,   a  cause  of  poverty, 
Appendix  I  (p.  254) 

Greer,  Rt.  Rev.  David  H.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Guggenheim,  Wm. — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard  of 
Living,  vii 

Guttmann,  Rev.  Adolph — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 


Health- 
Relative  expenditure  for,  68,  Dia- 
grams 6-7  (pp.  68-69);    details  of 
expenditure  for,  182-185,  Appendix 


II  (pp.  267,  276,  279,  280);  expendi- 
tures in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V  (p.  313). 
—Tables  i5~i5A>  9I_95  (PP-  7°"7i> 
186-190) 

Hickey,  Rt.  Rev.  Thos.  F.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Higgs,  Henry- 
Writer  on  budget  investigations,  7 
(note),  18 

Hill,  Robert  W.,  Appendix  IV  (p.  300, 
note) 

Honeoye  Falls,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV 
(pp.  300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 

Housing  and  rent,  75-310,  Appendix 
II  (pp.  264,  273,  278-279,  280,  281); 

I  proportion  of  rent  to  annual  income, 
75;  rent  in  various  localities,  75-76, 

I  Appendices  II  (pp.  273,  281),  IV 
(p.  302),  V  (pp.  309,  314);  number 

i      of  rooms,  dark  rooms^over-crowding, 

j  etc.,  76-83,  Diagrams  8-10,  (pp.  78, 
80,  82),  Appendices  II  (p.  273),  IV 
(p.  303);  comparison  of  nationalities 
with  respect  to,  76,  77,  81,  Diagram 

10  (p.  82);  bath-rooms  and  toilets, 
79,  Appendices  II  (pp.  273,  280),  IV 
(p.  303);  relation  of  lodgers  to  rent 
and    over-crowding,    83,  Appendix 

11  (p.  278);  increases  in  rent,  83- 
84,  84  (note);  in  Buffalo,  Appendix 
V  (pp.  309-310). — Tables  15-16,  17- 
50  (pp.  70-71,  85-110) 

Howard,  John  R.,  Jr. — 

Report  on  investigation  in  Buffalo, 
Appendix  V  (pp.  307-317). — Table 
131  (p.  318) 


Ice    and    refrigerators,    135-136. — 
Tables  77-78  (pp.  152-153) 

Ignorance,  as  a  cause  of  poverty, 

Appendix  I  (p.  254) 

Income — 

Grouping  of  families  according  to, 
38,  40,  Diagram  2  (p.  40),  Appendix 


367 


INDEX 


II  (p  271);  sources  of,  54-60, 
Diagrams  4-5  (pp.  54,  56);  relation 
to  expenditure,  229-234;  amount 
required  to  maintain  a  normal 
standard,  230-232,  234,  245-250, 
Appendices  II  (pp.  278,  279,  281),  V 
(pp.  316  ff.);  of  families  in  Buffalo 
investigation,  Appendix  V  (pp.  308- 
309). — Tables  7-14,  1 19-128,  131 
(pp.  61-67,  235-244,  318) 

Industrial  inefficiency,  a  cause  of 
poverty,  Appendix  I  (p.  254) 

"Industrial"  insurance,    191,  194 
(note),  245,  Appendix  II  (p.  266) 

Inefficiency,  industrial.    Sec  Indus- 
trial inefficiency 

Instalment  plan — 

Purchase  of  furniture  by,  200 
(note),  Appendix  II  (p.  267) 

Insurance — 

Relative  expenditure  for,  68,  Dia- 
grams 6-7  (pp.  68-69);  details  of 
expenditure  in  New  York,  191-194, 
Diagrams  15-16  (pp.  191-192),  232- 
233,  245,  Appendix  II  (pp.  266,  277); 
in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V  (p.  310);  "in- 
dustrial," 191,  194  (note),  245, 
Appendix  II  (p.  266);  burial,  191, 
192,  207,  245,  246,  Appendix  II 
(pp.  266,  277);  in  fraternal  organiza- 
tions, etc.,  193,  207,  245,  246. — 
Tables  15-15A,  96-99,  127  (pp.  70- 
71,  195-197,  243) 

Irish  families — 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel  and 
light,  115;  under-fed  families  among, 
128;  expenditure  for  alcoholic  drinks, 
134;  clothing,  162,  163,  165,  168; 
expenditure  for  health,  182;  carrying 
insurance,  191-194,  Diagrams  15-16 
(pp.  191-192);  taxes,  dues,  etc., 
207;  reporting  surplus  and  deficit, 
230,  231;  conclusions  on  standards 
of,  247.  See  also  Tables  under 
the  various  headings 

Italian  families — 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel 
and  light,  115;  relation  of  food- 
expenditure  to  rent,  123;  diet  of, 
124,    159-160;     under-fed  families 


among,  128;  reliance  on  baker, 
132;  meals  away  from  home,  132; 
expenditure  for  alcoholic  drinks,  134, 
221;  grade  of  milk  used,  135;  food- 
budgets  of,  159-160;  clothing,  162 
163,  165,  168,  170;  expenditure  for 
health,  182;  carrying  insurance,  191- 
194,  Diagrams  15-16  (pp.  191-192); 
taxes,  dues,  etc.,  206,  207;  recreation 
I  and  amusement,  210,  211;  education 
and  reading,  214,  215;  reporting 
surplus  and  deficit,  230,  231;  conclu- 
sions on  standards  of,  247;  in  Buffalo 
investigation,  Appendix  V  (p.  309). 
See  also  Tables  under  various  headings 

Jewish  families — 

Diet  of,  124;  carrying  insurance, 
191-194,  Diagrams  15-16  (pp.  191- 
192);  taxes,  dues,  etc.,  207  (note). 
Sec  also  Austrian;  Russian 


Katz,  Abram  J. — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Kerosene,  use  of.    See  Fuel  and  Light 

Kruesi,  Walter  E.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 


Labor  organizations — 

Cooperation  of,  in  New  York  in- 
vestigation, viii,  27,  34,  Appendix 
II  (p.  269);  families  contributing  to, 
206. — Tables  105-106  (pp.  208-209). 
See  also  Taxes,  Dues,  etc. 

"La  Methode  Sociale,"  by  Le  Play, 

8  (note) 

Landolt,  Karl — 

Method  of  investigation,  17 

Lattimore,  Miss  Alida,  Appendix  IV 
(p.  300,  note) 

"  Lebenskosten  Belgischer  Arbeiter- 
familien,"  by  Engel,  9  (note),  13 


INDEX 


Le  Play,  Frederic — 

Work  and  methods  of,  7-9,  7  (note), 
20;  "Les  Ouvriers  Europeens," 
8;  "La  Methode  Sociale,"  8  (note); 
aims  of,  20;  family  monograph  by 
(translation),  Appendix  VII  (pp.  326- 
352) 

"Les  Ouvriers  des  Deux  Mondes,"  9 

"Les  Ouvriers  Europeans,"  by  Le 

Play,  9;  translation  of  a  working- 
man's  budget  from,  Appendix  VII 
(pp.  326-352) 

Letter  from  a  workingman,  34 

"Life  and  Labor  of  the  People  in 
London,"  by  Booth,  17,  17  (note) 

Light,  expenditures  for.    See  Fuel 
and  Light 

Lodgers — 

Relation  to  income  and  to  over- 
crowding, 56,  58-59,  81,  83,  Appendix 
II  (pp.  273,  278-279,  280). — Tables 
12,  43,  46-48  (pp.  65,  107,  109-110) 

Lodges — 

Contributions  to,  206,  207,  Appen- 
dix II  (pp.  268,  276). — Tables  105- 
106  (pp.  208-209) 

Lundberg,  Miss  Emma  O. — 

Investigator  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V 
(p-  307) 


Manhattan — 

Housing,  rent,  and  car-fare  in,  75- 
76,  83-84.  111-112. — Tables  18, 
20-22,  26,  71-53  (pp.  86,  88-89,  0I> 
113-114).  For  other  items,  see  Tables 
under  the  various  headings 

Maryland,  N.  Y  — 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV 
(pp.  300-304). — Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 

Massachusetts  Labor  Report,  16 
Massie,  on  costs  of  living  (1756),  5 


Material  used  and  method  of  treat- 
ment, 37-43. — Tables  1-6A  (pp. 
44-53) 

24  369 


Milk- 
Expenditures  for  and  quality  of, 
135.— Tables  75-76  (pp.  150-151) 

Miscellaneous  expenditures,  219- 
223. — Tables  112-118  (pp.  224-228). 
See  also  Tobacco;  Alcoholic  Drinks; 
Barber's  services;  Spending  money 

Mitchell,  John — 

Estimate  of  minimum  wage,  Ap- 
pendix II  (p.  257) 

More,  Mrs.  Louise  Bolard — 

"Wage-earners'  Budgets,"  20,  20 
(note) 

Mother,  earnings  of.  See  Earnings; 
Income,  sources  of 


National  Conference   of  Charities 
and  Correction,  Appendix  I  (p.  253) 

Nationalities — 

Grouping  of  families  by,  39  39 
(note),  Diagram  1  (p,  38);  selection 
of,  for  investigation,  Appendices  II 
(pp.  281-282),  V  (p.  308);  compari- 
son of  dietary  standards,  Appendix 
VI  (pp.  320,  322,  325).  See  also 
details  and  Tables  under  the  various 
headings 

Newspapers — 

Use  of,  211,  214,  214  (note),  215.* — 
Table  111  (p.  218) 

New  York  City- 
Standard  of  living  investigation  in, 
23-250;  expenses  of,  vii,  26,  27,  28, 
33;  method  of,  25-34;  difficulties  of, 
30-31;  material  used  and  method  of 
treatment,  37-43;  analysis  of  re- 
turns received,  35-244;  conclusions, 
245-250;  preliminary  report  on, 
Appendix  II  (pp.  263-282);  report 
on  nutrition  investigation,  Appendix 
VI  (pp.  319-323) 

New  York  State- 
Investigations  in  nine  cities  and 
towns  of,  Appendix  IV  (pp.  300-304). 
— Tables  129-130  (pp.  305-306) 

New    York    State    Conference  of 
Charities  and  Correction — 

Investigations  instituted  by,  vii, 
23-250,  Appendices  I  (p.  253),  II 
(p.  263),  IV  (p.  300),  V  (p.  307) 


INDEX 


"Normal"  families.    See  Families 

Number  of  persons  per  family,  37. — 

Table  6A  (p.  53).  See  also  Tables 
under  various  headings 

Nutrition  investigation.    See  Under- 
hill,  Dr.  Frank  P. 


Occupations — 

Grouping  of  families  by,  40-41, 
Diagram  3  (p.  41);  selected  in 
Buffalo  investigation,  Appendix  V 
(p.  3o8).-Tables  3-6  (pp.  46-52) 

Over-crowding,  80-89,  Diagrams  9-10 
(pp.  80,  82),  232,  245,  246,  Appendix 
II  (p.  273;  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V 
(p.  310).— Tables  39"45>  124-126 
(pp.  103-108,  240-242).  See  also 
Housing 


Parks,  use  of.    See  Recreation 

Pawning  and  borrowing,  233-234, 
Appendix  II  (p.  277). — Table  128 
(p.  244) 

Petty,  Sir Wm- 

Investigations  by,  3-5;  "Anatomy 
of  Ireland,"  4;  "Political  Arithmetic," 
4;  "Writings  of,"  Hull  edition,  5 
(note) 

Piano — 

Possession  of,  a  sign  of  higher  stan- 
dard, 201,  201  (note) 

"Political  Arithmetic,"  by  Petty,  4 

Poverty — 

Causes  of,  a  new  classification  of, 
Appendix  I  (pp.  253-255) 

"Poverty:  A  Study  of  Town  Life," 

by  Rowntree,  17,  17  (note) 

Pratt,  Miss  Anna  B.,  Appendix  IV 
(p.  300,  note) 

"Principles  of  Relief,"  by  Edward 
T.  Devine,  Appendix  I  (p.  256) 


Queens  borough — 

Housing  and  rent  in,  81. — Table  19 
(p.  87).  For  other  items,  see  Tables 
under  the  various  headings 

"Quet,"  the— 

Engel's  unit  of  consumption,  13, 
15-20 

Quetelet,  Director  Belgian  Statisti- 
cal Bureau,  9,  15 


Reading.    See  Education 

Recreation  and  amusement,  210-211, 
245,  246,  Appendix  II  (pp.  268, 
276,  278,  281);  of  Buffalo  families, 
Appendix  V  (pp.  313,  316). — Tables 
107-108  (pp.  212-213) 

Religious  organizations.  See  Taxes, 
Dues,  and  Contributions 

Rent- 
Proportion  of  total  expenditure,  68, 
75;  in  various  localities,  75-76, 
Appendix  IV  (p.  302);  in  relation  to 
lodgers,  83;  increase  of,  since  1905, 
83-84;  relation  of  food-expenditure 
to,  123;  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V 
(pp.  309,  310,  314-317).— For  Tables, 
see  under  Housing 

Richfield  Springs,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV, 
(pp.  300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 

Robinson,  Herman — 

American  Federation  of  Labor,  27, 
Appendix  II  (p.  269) 

Rochester,  N.  Y. — 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV  (pp. 
300-304) —Tables  129-130  (pp.  305- 
306) 

Rooms.    See  Housing 

Rowntree,  B.  S. — 

"  Poverty:  A  Study  of  Town  Life," 
15,  15  (note  4),  17,  17  (note  2) 

Russell  Sage  Foundation,  vii,  26,  33 

Russian  families — 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 


370 


INDEX 


and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel  and  j 
light,  115;  food-expenditure  in  rela-  j 
tion  to  rent,  123;  diet  of,  124,  156-  j 
157;  under-fed  families  among,  128; 
reliance  on  baker,  132;  expenditure 
for  alcoholic  drinks.  134;  grade  of 
milk  used,  135;  food-budget  of,  156- 
157;  clothing,  162,  163,  165,  168; 
carrying  insurance,  191-194,  Dia- 
grams 15-16  (pp.  191-192);  expendi- 
ture for  furniture,  200;  taxes,  dues, 
etc.,  206,  207;  recreation  and  amuse- 
ment, 210;  education  and  reading, 
214,  215;  tobacco,  220;  reporting 
surplus  and  deficit,  230,  231;  con- 
clusions on  standards  of,  247.  See 
also  Tables  under  the  various  head- 
ings 


Savings,  232-233,  247,  Appendix  II 
(pp.  266,  277,  279),  III  (p.  286). — 
Table  127  (p.  243) 

Saxon  Statistical  Bureau,  11 

Saxony — 

Budgets  collected  in,  13 

Schedule — 

The  preparation  of,  vii,  25;  dis- 
tribution, vii-viii,  26,  27,  Appendix 

II  (p.  269);    number  returned  and 

tabulated,  27,  37,  Appendices  II  (pp. 

270-271),  III  (pp.  283-299).  See 
also  Belgian  Statistical  Bureau 

Sickness,    expenditure     for.  See 

Health 

Small,  Professor  Albion  W. — 

Estimate  of  minimum  wage,  Ap- 
pendix I  (p.  257) 

Sources  of  Income.  See  Income; 
Earnings 

South-European  group — 

Over-crowding  among,  81;  con- 
clusions on  standards  of,  230,  247 

Spending  money,  134,  220,  222,  223 

Standard  of  Living,  Committee  on, 

vii 

Standard  of  Living — 

Normal,  vii,  229,  230,  Appendices  I 
(pp.  256ff.),  II  (p.  263);  income  re- 
quired to  maintain  in  New  York,  | 

37 


230-232,  234,  245-250,  Appendices  I 
(pp.  256fL),  II  (pp.  263ff.);  in  Buf- 
falo, V  (p.  317);  definitions  of,  Ap- 
pendix I  (pp.  255-256);  essentials  of, 
Appendix  I  (p.  256) 

Standard  of  living  investigations — 

Objects  of,  vii,  3,  4,  5,  20-21,  253- 
262;  by  Petty,  3-5;  by  Davies,  6; 
by  Eden,  6-7;  by  Le  Play,  7-9;  by 
Engel,  9,  11-16;  by  Ducpetiaux  and 
others,  9-1 1;  by  U.  S.  Bur.  of  Labor, 
14,  16-17,  IQ;  by  Landolt,  17;  by 
Booth,  17,  17  (note),  18;  by  Rown-, 
tree,  17,  17  (note),  18;  by  Economic 
Club  of  London,  18;  by  Forman,  19; 
by  Mrs.  More,  20;  in  New  York  City, 
23-250;  in  nine  cities  and  towns  of 
New  York,  Appendix  IV  (pp.  300- 
306);  in  Buffalo,  Appendix  V  (pp. 
307-318).  See  also  New  York  City; 
Buffalo 

"State  of  the  Poor,"  by  Eden,  6,  7 
(note) 

Statistical  treatment — 

Method  used  and  objects  of,  42 

Sulzberger,  Cyrus  L. — 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

Sundry  minor  items  of  expenditure, 

198-228. — Tables  100-118  (pp.  199- 
228).  See  also  Furniture;  Taxes, 
Dues,  and  Contributions;  Recreation 
and  Amusement;  Education  and 
Reading;  Miscellaneous  Expendi- 
tures 

Surplus  and  deficit,  81-82,  229-234, 
246,  247.— Tables  44~45>  1 19-123 
(pp.  108,  235-239) 

Syracuse,  N.  Y. — 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV 
(pp.  300-304). — Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 


Taxes,  dues  and  contributions,  206- 
207,  245,  246,  247,  Appendix  I  (pp. 
268,  276);  paid  by  Buffalo  families, 
Appendix  V  (p.  313). — Tables  105- 
106  (pp.  208-209) 

Teeth,  care  of.    See  Dentistry 


INDEX 


Teutonic  families — 

Sources  of  income,  58,  59;  housing 
and  rent,  76,  77-78,  79,  81;  fuel  and 
light,  115;  under-fed  families  among, 
128;  expenditure  for  alcoholic  drinks, 
134;  clothing,  162,  163,  168,  169; 
carrying  insurance,  191-194,  Dia- 
grams 15-16  (pp.  191-192);  taxes, 
dues,  etc.,  207;  recreation  and 
amusement,  211;  education  and 
reading.  214;  reporting  surplus  and 
deficit,  230-231;  conclusions  on 
standards  of,  247.  See  also  Tables 
under  the  various  headings 

Theatre,  use  of.    See  Recreation 

Tobacco,    220-221. — Tables  117-118 
(pp.  227-228) 

Toilets.    See  Housing 

Towne,  Arthur  W.,  Appendix  IV  (p. 
300,  note) 

Trade  unions — 

Cooperation  of,  in  New  York  in- 
vestigation, viii,  27,  34,  Appendix  II 
(p.  269) 

Tucker,  Frank — 

Resolution  on  appointment  of 
Committee  on  Standard  of  Living 
introduced  by,  vii;  report  of,  Appen- 
dix I  (pp.  253-262) 

"Twenty-eight  British  Households" 

— Economic  Club  of  London,  18 

"Typical"  families.    See  Families 


Under-clad  families,  167-169,  232, 
245,  247,  Diagrams  13-14  (pp.  167- 
168). — Tables  84-87,  124-126  (pp. 
177-179,  240-242).  See  also  Cloth- 
ing 

Under-fed  families,  125-131,  232, 
245,  246,  Diagrams  11-12  (pp.  127- 
128). — Tables  63-67,  124-126  (pp. 
141-144,  240-242).    See  also  Food 

Underhill,  Dr.  Frank  P.— 

On  nutritive  values  of  foods,  25- 
128,  Appendices  II  (pp.  265,  271), 
V  (p.  316);  report  of,  Appendix  VI 
(pp.  319-325) 


Unit  of  consumption — 

Various  standards  used,  14-15; 
established  by  Engel  (the  "quet"), 
15;  adopted  by  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric, 
125,  Appendix  II  (p.  265).  See  also 
Dietary  requirements;  Underhill; 
Food,  etc. 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor,  14,  16,  19 

U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture- 
Publications,  15  (note),  18  (note), 
Appendices  II  (p.  265),  VI  (pp.  319, 
320,  324);  scale  of  units  of  food  con- 
sumption, 125 


Vanderlint,  Jacob,  on  costs  of  living 
(1735),  5 
:  Victor,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV  (pp. 
300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp.  305- 
306) 

Visitors,  volunteer  and  paid.  See 

Enumerators 

i  Visschers,  Belgian  Minister — 

Reports  of,  9,  10 


!  Wage-earners.    See    Earnings,  In- 
come 

"  Wage -earners'  Budgets"— by  Mrs. 
Louise  Bolard  More,  20,  20  (note) 

Wages,  "going,"  Appendix  I  (p.  260) 

White,  Rev.  Wm.  J.— 

Member  Committee  on  Standard 
of  Living,  vii 

j  Whitehall,  N.  Y.— 

Investigation  in,  Appendix  IV 
(pp.  300-304).— Tables  129-130  (pp. 
305-306) 

j  Workingman's  letter  on  the  sched- 
ule, 34 

I  "Workingmen's  Budgets  in  Statis- 
tical Literature,"  viii,  1-2 1 

Wright,  Col.  Carroll  D.— 

U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  14,  16 


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